Ultrasound-assisted extraction and modification of dietary fiber

Abstract

Dietary fiber has high nutritional value and performs important physiological functions. Therefore, the preparation of high-quality dietary fiber has become an important research topic. Herein, we summarize the research status of the extraction and modification of dietary fiber by ultrasonic technology in recent years. The characteristics and working principles of ultrasonics were analyzed. The effects of ultrasonic extraction and modification were analyzed, and the working mechanism and influencing factors of ultrasonic extraction and modification were expounded. Finally, the existing problems were summarized, and the developmental prospects of ultrasonic technology were considered to provide a theoretical reference for the high-value utilization of dietary fiber resources. The advantages of ultrasonic technology are its high extraction efficiency, mild extraction conditions, excellent modification effect, environmental friendliness, and low energy consumption, and because of these characteristics, it is one of the most promising technologies for the extraction and modification of dietary fiber.

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Sustainability spotlight

What is the situation and why is it important to address/understand this?. Dietary fiber has high nutritional value, and it performs important physiological functions. Therefore, the preparation of high-quality dietary fiber has become an important research topic. What is the sustainable advancement of the work?. The progress of dietary fiber is centering on the core goal of “filling the short board of intake”, and it is continuously promoted through multiple paths such as policy compulsion, food industrialization improvement, precise intervention of microbiology and cross-industry resource utilization. How does the work align with the UN SDG(s) (https://sdgs.un.org/goals)?. Dietary fiber work is not only a nutritional problem, but also a key link between human health and the boundary of the earth. Through the whole chain optimization, a win-win situation of health benefits and environmental sustainability can be achieved.

1. Introduction

Dietary fiber is known as ‘the seventh nutrient’.¹ Dietary fiber has many beneficial effects on the human body, including improving intestinal flora, preventing intestinal diseases, lowering blood cholesterol, improving glucose tolerance, reducing blood glucose response, preventing cardiovascular diseases, and promoting growth and development.^2,3

Depending on their solubility in water, dietary fibers are mainly divided into the categories: soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF). SDF mainly includes pectin and part of hemicellulose, while IDF mainly includes cellulose and lignin. Dietary fiber is derived from a wide range of sources, mainly from plant cell walls. Grains, beans, fruits, and vegetables can all be used as raw materials for extracting dietary fiber.⁴ Studies have shown that there is often a high content of IDF⁵ in the byproducts of food processing, such as peel, pomace, bran, and bean dregs. However, due to the poor water solubility and rough taste of this type of dietary fiber, it is difficult to effectively utilize IDF in these byproducts. Additionally, the structural skeleton of natural plant cell walls is composed of cellulose; however, because hemicellulose and lignin are dispersed in the fiber, fully extracting the dietary fiber remains a challenge.⁶ Therefore, it is a pressing issue in the field of dietary fiber research to develop suitable extraction and modification methods to improve the utilization rate and functional characteristics of dietary fiber.

Among many methods for extracting and modifying dietary fiber, ultrasonic technology is advantageous due to its high extraction efficiency, mild extraction conditions, excellent modification effect, environmental friendliness, and low energy consumption, and therefore, it is one of the most promising technologies for extracting and modifying dietary fiber.⁷ Ultrasound can destroy the plant cell wall and thoroughly disperse dietary fiber in a solvent. It can also transform some water-insoluble components into water-soluble components, thus loosening the dense spatial network structure. In addition, the cavitation and mechanical effects of ultrasound enable it to extract and modify dietary fiber at room temperature, decrease the extraction time, increase the extraction efficiency, and greatly reduce the energy consumption.⁸

Therefore, after the characteristics and working principles of ultrasonic technology were analyzed, we herein summarize the research status of ultrasonic technology in extracting and modifying dietary fiber in recent years, and discuss the mechanism and influencing factors of ultrasonic technology in extracting and modifying dietary fiber to provide a useful reference for the application of ultrasonic technology in the development of dietary fiber resources. The developmental trend of dietary fiber modification technology in the future is examined to provide a theoretical basis and practical guidance for further research and application of dietary fiber modification technology.

2. Overview of ultrasonic technology

An ultrasonic wave is an inaudible sound wave with a frequency higher than 20 kHz. Like other sound waves, it is generated by the periodic vibration of particles in a medium under the action of mechanical force, and can only propagate through a medium. In the food industry, ultrasound can be divided into the categories of high-frequency low-intensity diagnostic ultrasound (5–10 MHz, intensity <1 W cm⁻²) and low-frequency high-intensity power ultrasound⁹ (20–100 kHz, intensity 1–1000 W cm⁻²) according to different frequencies. The former is mainly used for nondestructive testing of food materials during processing and storage to ensure that the quality and safety of materials meet existing standards.

For example, it can be used to determine the physical and chemical characteristics of food, such as crispness,¹⁰ hardness,¹¹ and oil content.¹² The latter can produce a fast-moving micro-bubble flow, and the bursting of bubbles leads to physical, chemical, and even biochemical changes in food that can be used for most food processing and preservation, such as auxiliary freezing, changing fat texture characteristics, protein emulsification, defoaming, sterilization, extraction of bioactive substances, and modification of food ingredients.^13–15

When ultrasonic waves propagate in the medium, the medium changes due to the interaction between the ultrasonic wave and the medium, resulting in a series of mechanical and electromagnetic ultrasonic effects, mainly including mechanical response and the cavitation effect.¹⁶ The mechanical effect of ultrasonic waves consists of the propagation of ultrasonic waves in a medium that results in medium particles vibrating in their propagation space, thus strengthening the diffusion and propagation of the medium. In addition, easily broken bubbles¹⁷ will be formed in water by ultrasonic treatment. These bubbles are unstable and will undergo cycles of generation, development, and rapid closure. When they rapidly collapse and break, they will produce a micro-shock wave that increases pressure in local areas. The phenomenon of bubbles forming in liquid and then quickly closing is the cavitation effect.

The working mechanism of ultrasonic extraction and modification of dietary fiber is mainly related to the cavitation effect. During the extraction and modification of dietary fiber, sound waves will propagate in a container filled with a medium, resulting in a compressed phase and a sparse phase. In the case of insufficient sound pressure, cavitation bubbles will increase and contract in a sparse cycle and compression cycle, respectively. If the bubble cannot reach the critical size for collapse or inward rupture, this phenomenon, which is referred to as stable cavitation, will weaken the cavitation effect.

With sufficient pressure, the bubble will rapidly expand, and when the bubble exceeds its critical size, it will collapse or burst inward, which is called instantaneous cavitation. At this time, a great deal of energy will be released, which will instantly increase the temperature and pressure, and at the same time form high shear force and turbulence,¹⁸ thus destroying the plant cell wall and releasing dietary fiber into the solvent. Thus, the extraction of dietary fiber is achieved, and water molecules are allowed to release free radicals and react with dietary fiber molecules for modification (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Ultrasound technology for food processing.

3. Ultrasonic extraction of dietary fiber

Dietary fiber is an active plant polysaccharide that can be effectively extracted under the effect of ultrasonic cavitation. Compared with other extraction methods, the conditions of ultrasonic extraction are milder. Because the rupture and oscillation of cavitation bubbles can cause crushing, erosion, acoustic hole effect, capillary effect, shear force, and turbulence,¹⁹ mass transfer is enhanced. Therefore, ultrasonic extraction can be carried out at lower temperatures, with less solvent, and in a shorter time, which can improve the yield and reduce the energy consumption.

The cavitation effect breaks the cell wall and also destroys the molecular structure of the extracted substance.²⁰ Therefore, when using ultrasound to extract dietary fiber, it is necessary to control the ultrasonic parameters, extraction time, extraction solvent, and dosage and concentration of solvent. In the process of ultrasonic extraction of dietary fiber, there are two methods: single extraction and auxiliary extraction. These two methods are described and compared below.

3.1 Ultrasonic extraction alone

Ultrasonic waves are economical, environmentally friendly, and simple to use for extracting dietary fiber. Kurek et al.²¹ showed that the yield of ultrasonic extraction was higher than that of enzymatic extraction when extracting millet dietary fiber, and the grain diameter of the millet dietary fiber was larger, with a denser interior. Wen et al.²² extracted SDF from coffee silver skin under an ultrasonic wave power of 200 W with treatment for 20 min, and the yield reached (22.8 0.3)%, with an extraction time that was significantly shorter than that of hot water extraction. Ultrasonic extraction of dietary fiber can effectively improve the yield, and the extracted dietary fiber is characterized by increased water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, swelling capacity, and cation exchange capacity, with a complex and porous structure.^23–27

3.2 Ultrasonic-assisted extraction

In research and practical application, ultrasonic-assisted extraction is more widely used than single extraction. This is because the yield from auxiliary extraction is high, the extraction time is short, and the chemical composition and structure are not easily destroyed. The ultrasonic-assisted alkaline method, ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic method, and ultrasonic-assisted microwave method are commonly used. Liu²⁸ extracted IDF from mung bean skin under the conditions of alkali concentration of 3.0 mol L⁻¹, liquid-material ratio of 15 : 1 (mL : g), temperature of 52 °C, ultrasonic power of 350 W, and extraction time of 148 min, with a maximum yield of 66.280. Moczkowska et al.²⁹ treated flaxseed with ultrasound at 55 °C for 15 min, and then administered an enzymatic treatment, and the highest SDF yield was (68.90 0.50)%. Chen et al.³⁰ extracted SDF from taro peel under the conditions of ultrasonic power of 327 W, microwave power of 40 W, liquid-material ratio of 38 : 1 (mL : g), and extraction time of 12 min, and the highest yield was (18.58 0.25)%. The yield of dietary fiber extracted by ultrasonic wave is generally higher than that by ultrasonic wave alone. In terms of functional characteristics, compared with single extraction, the extracted dietary fiber structure is more complex and porous. There is also increased cholesterol-binding ability and glucose-adsorption ability, with satisfactory hypoglycemic ability and thermal stability. This is because when combined with other methods, ultrasound can accelerate the rupture of plant cell walls so that the dietary fiber in cells can be released, diffused, and dissolved faster, thus decreasing the processing time and improving the yield^31–35 (Table 1).

Table 1 Application of ultrasound-assisted extraction of dietary fiber^a,b

Method	Raw material	Extraction effect	References
a g g^−1: indicates how many grams of oil can be adsorbed or retained per gram of material.b mL g^−1: represents the volume (in milliliters) occupied by each gram of dry matter after fully absorbing water, and is used to measure the swelling capacity of materials after hydration.
Ultrasonic-assisted alkaline method	Marine Microcystis	Under optimal conditions, the yield of U-SDF is (17.50 0.26)%, which is increased by 150.72%	31
	Papaya peel	The yield of SDF is 36.99%, and the main sugar is pectin sugar, which undergoes low crystallization and possesses high thermal stability, water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, and swelling capacity	32
Ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic method	Seedless rosa roxburghii residue	The highest ratio of SDF/IDF in rosa roxburghii residue is 0.638/0.012. The swelling power and water-holding capacities of the total dietary fiber in rosa roxburghii residue are 2.761 mL g^−1 and 3.248 g g^−1, respectively. The oil-holding capacity is 2.603 g g^−1, and the solubility is 37.643%	33
	Bamboo shoots	The yields of SDF and IDF were (12.29 0.12)% and (55.98 2.57)%, respectively, and the particle size decreased, showing a porous and loose structure, with good hypoglycemic activity	34
Ultrasonic-assisted microwave method	Black bean skin	The SDF yield can reach (19.12 ± 0.23)%, the swelling power is 585.71%, the water-holding capacity is 11.89 g g^−1, and the oil-holding capacity is 10.52 g g^−1	35

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4. Ultrasonic treatment of modified dietary fiber

Ultrasonic treatment can degrade high-molecular-weight polymers such as dietary fiber and modify them. The modified dietary fiber usually possesses increased water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, swelling capacity, smaller particle size, and larger specific surface area. Ultrasonic modification can reduce the treatment temperature, decrease the processing time, optimize the modification effect, and can modify dietary fiber alone or with other technologies.

4.1 Ultrasonic modification alone

Ultrasonic modification is a relatively safe and pollution-free technology that operates with low energy consumption, and the modification effect is relatively simple. There are two aspects to its working mechanism: (i) the collapse of cavitation bubbles accelerates the friction between solvent molecules and polymer molecules, thus causing mechanical C–C bond breakage, and (ii) chemical degradation caused by chemical reaction occurs between polymer molecules and high-energy molecules.

Chen et al.³⁶ studied the effects of different ultrasonic frequencies on the physical and chemical properties of modified citrus pectin. The results showed that the molecular weight and viscosity of modified pectin were lower than those of the control group. After ultrasonic modification, the glucose and cholesterol adsorption capacities of dietary fiber were clearly increased, and the viscosity and thermal stability were also improved. A certain amount of IDF is converted into SDF, and the solubility is enhanced. Zhang et al.³⁷ modified the dietary fiber of the bamboo Phyllostachys praecox at the ultrasonic power of 100 W, frequency of 25 kHz, liquid-material ratio of 10 : 1, and room temperature for 1 h. After modification, the physical and chemical properties and antioxidant activity of the dietary fiber of P. praecox were significantly improved. Additionally, chemical bonds were broken, and molecular rearrangement occurred, resulting in some changes in the dietary fiber composition of P. praecox.

Niu et al.³⁸ showed that the water-holding capacity, swelling capacity, and oil-holding capacity of oat dietary fiber modified by ultrasonic treatment were significantly increased. In addition, the particle size was reduced, the surface structure was loosened, and honeycomb-like porous characteristics appeared. Ultrasonic modification can increase the swelling capacity, water-holding capacity, and oil-holding capacity of dietary fiber, resulting in improved functional and physicochemical properties compared with unmodified dietary fiber.^39–43

4.2 Ultrasonic-assisted modification

Ultrasonic-assisted modification can be accomplished in less time, with high efficiency and wide application. Huang et al.⁴⁴ showed that the water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, and swelling power of garlic straw dietary fiber were significantly increased by ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic treatment, and the microstructure was looser and the adsorption was stronger, which were more optimal results than those obtained with the traditional single enzymatic method and water bath method. Compared with the dietary fiber modified by other methods alone, the dietary fiber modified by ultrasonic waves exhibits higher water-holding and oil-holding capacities, and the functional properties such as the cholesterol-adsorption and glucose-adsorption capacities of the modified dietary fiber were also improved, which shows that ultrasonic waves can effectively modify dietary fiber, and can also be used with other modification methods to further improve the modification effect on dietary fiber^45–49 (Table 2).

Table 2 Application of ultrasound-assisted modification of dietary fiber^a,b

Method	Raw material	Extraction effect	References
a g g^−1: indicates how many grams of oil can be adsorbed or retained per gram of material.b mL g^−1: represents the volume (in milliliters) occupied by each gram of dry matter after fully absorbing water, and is used to measure the swelling capacity of materials after hydration.
Ultrasonic-assisted microwave technology	Black bean skin	The water-holding capacity, water-swelling capacity, and oil-holding capacity are 3.79 g g^−1, 1.39 ml g^−1, and 1.14 g g^−1, respectively, which are 9.54%, 23.01%, and 17.53% higher than the original SDF. The cholesterol-binding capacity was 13.8 mg g^−1	45
	Pomelo peel	It demonstrated the highest water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, cholesterol-adsorption capacity, glucose-adsorption capacity, and nitrite ion-adsorption capacity	46
Ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic method	Rose pomace	Ultrasonic pretreatment is helpful to increase the water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, cation exchange, and cholesterol-adsorption capacity, but it will reduce the glucose-adsorption capacity	47
	Sisal waste and moringa stems	The ratio of IDF and SDF is reduced, and the particle size is reduced. The water-holding capacity, expansion capacity, and oil-holding capacity are all increased	48
Ultrasonic-assisted acid method	Sweet potato residue	The dispersion index is the smallest, the system is the most uniform, and the oil-holding and water-holding capacities are the highest	49

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5. Factors affecting ultrasonic extraction and modification of dietary fiber

When dietary fiber is extracted and modified by ultrasonic wave, the frequency, power and intensity of ultrasonic wave will affect its effect. At the same time, treatment temperature, raw material characteristics, medium conditions and other factors will also affect it.

5.1 Power and frequency

The power of ultrasonic waves is also called amplitude percentage, and ranges from 0 to 100%, where 100% amplitude represents the rated power of the equipment. Studies have shown that the yield and modification effect of dietary fiber from Microcystis marine increase with increasing ultrasonic power, and then decrease after reaching the peak.³¹ This may occur because with the increase in power, the influence of cavitation bubble rupture is enhanced, which leads to tissue fragmentation and pore formation of marine Microcystis, and after reaching the peak, it adversely affects dietary fiber.

There is little research on the extraction and modification of dietary fiber by ultrasound at different frequencies, and most of the research focuses on a constant frequency. Bagherian et al.²⁵ extracted dietary fiber from wheat bran, Hu et al.⁴¹ modified the dietary fiber of sunflower meal by ultrasonic waves, and Yang et al.⁴⁸ modified the dietary fiber of sisal waste and Moringa stems by an ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic method, all of which applied a constant frequency of 20 kHz. The constant low frequency is beneficial because the ultrasonic frequency is inversely proportional to the duration of the sparse phase, and the formation and growth of cavitation bubbles require a certain compression sparse cycle time. If the compression time is insufficient, cavitation bubbles will not form and grow, and a large number of bubbles formed at high frequency will also hinder mass transfer.

The extraction and modification of dietary fiber by ultrasonic frequency is indeed an important research direction in the field of food processing for the future. Its core advantage lies in effectively improving the extraction rate, solubility, and functional characteristics of dietary fiber without using chemical reagents, relying instead on physical mechanisms such as cavitation effects, mechanical shear, and thermal effects.

5.2 Ultrasonic intensity

Ultrasonic intensity, namely power density, is expressed as power dissipated per second, per liter, or per square meter. The intensity of ultrasonic waves increases with increasing amplitude, and the collapse of cavitation bubbles also increases. However, the yield and modification effect of dietary fiber will not increase when the ultrasonic intensity reaches a certain threshold.

Wang et al.⁵⁰ studied the effects of different ultrasonic wave intensities (10.18, 12.22, and 14.26 W cm⁻²) on the yield of dietary fiber from grapefruit peel. Their results showed that the yield of dietary fiber from grapefruit peel increased with increasing ultrasonic intensity, but it began to decline after the ultrasonic intensity reached 12.22 W cm⁻², which was probably too high. Zhang et al.¹⁷ measured the weight average molecular weight of apple dietary fiber obtained under different ultrasonic intensities, which increased with increasing ultrasonic intensity, but when the intensity exceeded 302 W cm⁻², the weight average molecular weight began to decrease.

5.3 Temperature

In a certain range, the yield of dietary fiber from ultrasonic extraction and the effect of modified dietary fiber increased with increasing temperature, but decreased after reaching the optimal temperature. Zhang et al.³⁷ studied the effects of ultrasonic temperature at 50 °C, 55 °C, 60 °C, 65 °C, and 70 °C on the yield of dietary fiber from black bean skin. The results showed that when the temperature was lower than 60 °C, the increasing temperature was beneficial for the extraction of SDF from black bean skin, but when the temperature was higher than 65 °C, the yield decreased. This may have occurred due to the dual effects of dietary fiber and solvent. The increased temperature increases the desorption performance and solubility of dietary fiber in the solvent, but it reduces the viscosity of the solvent itself and increases the diffusion rate of the solvent in the tissue matrix.

5.4 Other factors

Other factors, such as the solvent used for ultrasonic extraction, the ratio of liquid to material, the pH value of the solvent, and the treatment time, will also affect the extraction effect to varying degrees. Maran et al.⁵¹ extracted pectin from sisal waste at different liquid-material ratios (20 : 1, 30 : 1, and 40 : 1; mL : g) and with different extraction times (10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 min). The results showed that the maximum yield was 30 : 1 when the liquid-material ratio was 30 : 1. Li et al.²⁴ studied the extraction rate of SDF from apple pomace by ultrasound when the pH value of the solvent was 1–5. The results showed that the yield of dietary fiber significantly increased when the pH value increased from 1 to 2, and then the yield decreased with increasing pH value.

6. Conclusion and perspective

Dietary fiber is an important functional food ingredient that is widely available, but its high-value application is limited by its low extraction rate, poor solubility, and unpalatable taste in its natural state. Ultrasonic-assisted extraction and modification technology has brought innovation to the dietary fiber industry because of its high efficiency, environmental friendliness, and controllability. By deepening mechanism research, developing joint technology, promoting industrial applications, and verifying health efficacy, this technology will play a greater role in enhancing the added value of agricultural products and promoting the sustainable development of the food industry.

In the future, with the development of intelligent control technology, ultrasonic-assisted extraction will be combined with online monitoring and automatic control to realize precise production. Interdisciplinary research will further elucidate the mechanisms underlying the effects of ultrasound on the structure–activity relationship of dietary fiber, promote its wide application in medical foods, functional beverages, and plant-based substitutes, and provide strong technical support for the sustainable development of global food systems.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Data availability

Data sharing is not applicable to this article, as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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