Phthalates in children's intimate clothing: occurrence, accumulation, source analysis, and partitioning

Abstract

Phthalic acid esters (PAEs), commonly used as plasticizers in clothing manufacturing to enhance flexibility and ductility, were investigated in six types of children's intimate apparel. Background concentrations of PAEs in the apparel were first determined, followed by accumulation experiments conducted under controlled indoor conditions after washing. Total PAE background concentrations ranged from 0.655 to 28.0 µg g⁻¹, with vests, shorts, and socks exhibiting the highest contamination levels. Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di (2-n-butoxyethyl) phthalate (DBEP) were the most prevalent compounds, with median concentrations of 2.72 µg g⁻¹ and 1.74 µg g⁻¹, respectively. Accumulation experiments under low ventilation conditions showed that PAE levels on clothing remained stable over short durations, with no statistically significant temporal variations. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) resolved four source factors potentially contributing to clothing contamination, with indoor objects and surfaces being the dominant contributors. Using a clothed child dummy, this study quantified the partition coefficients of PAEs between the gas-phase and clothing, as well as between the gas-phase and dummy skin, under indoor conditions. Results indicated that synthetic fibers promoted PAE accumulation, whereas cotton clothing provided superior, though time-dependent, barrier effects. Higher PAE concentrations on exposed dummy skin confirmed the protective role of clothing.