Spatial and chemical heterogeneity in aqueous Zn/MnO2 batteries: role of Zn and Mn containing complexes

Abstract

Aqueous Zn/MnO₂ batteries are a promising, safe alternative for grid-scale energy storage, owing to their environmentally safe and low-cost nature. The dissolution–deposition reaction mechanism in a mild aqueous pH regime has recently gained significance due to its relevance in battery design. Comprehending both the specific locations and the way reaction progresses is crucial for efficient batteries. This study demonstrates that Zinc Hydroxy Sulfate (ZHS) formed during discharge primarily near the dissolved MnO₂ particles. Acting as a host for charge reactants in subsequent cycles, the charge product morphology was visualized using operando X-ray fluorescence microscopy. After ∼400 hours of cycling, capacity fade was linked to the formation of a Zn–Mn core–shell phase which is attributed to an irreversible core phase in the electrode, visualized through three-dimensional chemical mapping. Overall, this research underscores the importance of understanding local morphological evolution in designing electrodes and chemistries for advanced grid-scale energy storage technologies.