Exploring the association between communicating about NMR spectra and acute awareness of stigma attached to one's gender among women in postsecondary organic chemistry courses
Megan C.
Connor
*,
Ally R.
Parvin
and
Alex F.
Browning
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Samford University, Birmingham, Alabama 35229, USA. E-mail: mconnor@samford.edu
First published on 23rd December 2024
Abstract
Women report that they must conform to masculine behavioral norms to progress in chemistry, with the necessity of adopting such norms pushing them from the field. Advancing gender-based equity within chemistry will thus entail identifying these norms, deconstructing them, and, ultimately, redefining them to be inclusive of all individuals. To support these efforts, this study investigates whether engaging in a traditional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) communication task versus a similar task with multiple identity-safe cues differentially impacts individuals’ gender stigma consciousness, or the extent to which individuals are acutely aware of stigma attached to their gender. Undergraduates (n = 543) enrolled in Organic Chemistry II at a large university in the southeastern United States completed an online NMR communication task followed by a version of the Social Identities and Attitudes Scale (SIAS) modified for use in chemistry learning environments (i.e., the SIAS-Chem). Participants were randomly assigned to one of two prompt groups prior to task completion: one group was told the task evaluates their NMR communication ability, and the other group was told the task was non-evaluative and used to understand the different ways people communicate. The results provide initial psychometric evidence of the SIAS-Chem's functionality and measurement invariance across prompt groups, providing preliminary support for its use in identifying chemistry practices that are potentially exclusionary of women. Further, women who were told the task evaluates NMR communication ability reported greater gender stigma consciousness on the SIAS-Chem compared to women who were told the task was non-evaluative, while there is no evidence of men scoring differently across prompts. Gender stigma consciousness was also associated with confidence during task completion among women who were told the task was non-evaluative. The findings have implications for the design of equitable assessments and instruction on NMR spectroscopy and future research on communication styles in chemistry.
Introduction
Women remain underrepresented in chemistry at the graduate and professional levels in the United States, with the degree of underrepresentation increasing as one progresses in the discipline. In 2022, approximately 55.9% of chemistry bachelor's degrees were awarded to women in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics, 2022). In the same year, 48.2% of chemistry master's degrees and just 41.2% of chemistry doctoral degrees were awarded to women (National Center for Education Statistics, 2022). The steepest decline in representation then occurs when transitioning from educational to professional contexts; according to the National Science Foundation's most recent survey of doctorate recipients in 2021, only 36.2% of chemistry faculty members and 25.1% of other chemists in the United States are women (National Science Foundation, 2021). Research literature identifies numerous variables underlying this low retention (e.g., Greene et al., 2010; Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018; Howe et al., 2022a, 2022b; Zhang, 2024). Collectively, these findings suggest that various aspects of the discipline function to minoritize women, ultimately prompting their attrition. Advancing gender-based inclusion and equity in chemistry will, thus, entail addressing these factors.Factors contributing to the minoritization of women in chemistry
Minoritization refers to the process whereby systemic inequities, oppression, and exclusion function to subordinate certain social groups, with these systems of power simultaneously working to maintain the dominance of historically privileged social identities (Sotto-Santiago, 2019). A body of research has explored the minoritization of women in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), with more recent studies providing specific insight into inequities and exclusion encountered by women in chemistry settings. This research demonstrates that overt sexism (e.g., verbal harassment; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018) and unconscious gender bias in the form of microaggressions (e.g., questioning a woman's interest in chemistry; Zhang, 2024) persist within chemistry departments, affecting both women graduate students and faculty members. These behaviors serve to undermine women's sense of belonging (Welde and Laursen, 2011), with associated feelings of being unwelcome or inadequate making it difficult to remain in one's position. Chemistry faculty members who are women also report receiving little professional support through mentoring, as well as perceiving substantive differences in the resources and privileges afforded to men versus women faculty (Greene et al., 2010). Further, chemistry graduate students who are women report a desire to maintain a work-life balance, though they have low expectations for obtaining a faculty position that would allow for this balance (Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Howe et al., 2022a). They also view their desire for work-life balance to conflict with an overwork norm that pervades the discipline (e.g., Zhang, 2024). Some women further report that such positions are incompatible with societal expectations of their role in childcare and familial responsibilities (Grunert and Bodner, 2011). To promote gender-based inclusion and equity in academic chemistry settings, departments will thus require cultures characterized by intolerance to overt sexism, continuous reflection on unconscious biases, intentionality at providing equitable professional development opportunities, and greater accommodation of families and work-life balance.Challenges with establishing a chemistry identity
In addition to these exclusionary factors, women's gender identity can be difficult to reconcile with their identity as a chemist, serving as an additional barrier to their successful participation in the discipline (Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). This identity conflict occurs because science, more broadly, is a community of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991) characterized by masculine values and behavioral norms (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997; Eisenhart and Finkel, 1998). The prevalence of societal discourse that associates science (in particular, physical science) with masculinity is widely documented (Haraway, 1988), including the general notion that scientists are men (Baker and Leary, 1995; Breakwell et al., 2003; Carlone, 2003; Fadigan and Hammrich, 2004; Adamuti-Trache and Andres, 2008; Buck et al., 2008; Caleon and Subramaniam, 2008; Barton and Tan, 2009). These ideological foundations associate “scientist” with “man,” making the formation of science identity challenging for women (Carli et al., 2016; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). Yet in the midst of these ideological foundations, women must still form a science identity, or view and acceptance of oneself as a “scientist,” to successfully participate in this community of practice (Carlone and Johnson, 2007). A number of studies document the conflict between one's science identity and gender identity (Carlone and Johnson, 2007; Archer et al., 2010; Johnson et al., 2011; Calabrese Barton et al., 2013; Krogh and Andersen, 2013). Studies investigating this conflict often adopt an intersectionality lens (Crenshaw, 1989), which acknowledges that one's science identity intersects with their other identities (e.g., gender identity, ethnic identity, religious identity, etc.) in inseparable ways to impact their participation in science (Avraamidou, 2020). Moreover, recent studies demonstrate that this conflict also extends down to the disciplinary level as women attempt to form a chemistry identity, or view and acceptance of oneself as a “chemist” (Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018).Carlone and Johnson (2007) identify three subconstructs underlying science identity: competence, performance, and recognition. According to this framework, a woman with a strong science identity possesses a meaningful understanding of scientific content (i.e., competence). She is also able to demonstrate to others her competence with scientific practices (i.e., performance) through “uses of scientific tools, fluency with all forms of scientific talk and ways of acting, and interacting in various formal and informal scientific settings” (Carlone and Johnson, 2007). Lastly, she recognizes herself as a “science person” and others recognize her as a “science person” (i.e., recognition) through her demonstrated performance. This recognition is essential for developing a strong science identity (Carlone and Johnson, 2007).
Carlone and Johnson's (2007) science identity framework provides important theoretical grounding from which other identity frameworks have emerged (Hazari et al., 2010; Hosbein and Barbera, 2020a, 2020b). For instance, Hazari et al. (2010) also incorporate the subconstructs competence, performance, and recognition into their framework describing students’ physics identity. However, the competence and performance subconstructs are refined to focus on students’ belief in their ability to understand content and performed required tasks, respectively, rather than ability alone. Hazari et al. (2010) also identify interest as a fourth subconstruct underlying students’ physics identity, where they define interest as the desire or curiosity to think about and understand physics. Further, Hosbein and Barbera (2020a) developed a framework describing undergraduates’ chemistry identity, in which the subconstructs performance and competence are replaced with a new subconstruct termed mastery experiences. In this framework, mastery experiences constitute “experiences in which an individual is able to base their self-perception on successes and failures of specific tasks within a classroom” (Hosbein and Barbera, 2020a). The framework further breaks down Carlone and Johnson's (2007) recognition subconstruct into verbal persuasion (i.e., “verbal recognition for being good at… chemistry”) and vicarious experiences (i.e., “recognition of self through comparison of others’ experiences with… chemistry”) (Hosbein and Barbera, 2020a). Situational interest and mindset are then identified as additional factors underlying students’ chemistry identity. Situational interest is defined as a student's orientation to chemistry through “value- and feeling-related interest,” whereas mindset refers to the belief that participation in chemistry requires either inherent ability or determination (Hosbein and Barbera, 2020a).
When experiencing conflict between one's gender identity and identity as a scientist, many women perceive a need to negotiate their sense of self in order to be both a “woman” and a “scientist” (Archer et al., 2012; Danielsson, 2012). This is because certain science fields constitute masculine and heteronormative contexts where women who do not perform their gender in such ways are excluded (Danielsson, 2012; Calás et al., 2013; Avraamidou, 2020). This negotiation of self may involve redefining one's notion of what it means to be a “woman” or “scientist,” including the abandonment or change of mannerisms, behaviors, and the assumptions associated with them in order to form a cohesive sense of self (Archer et al., 2012; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). When considering the subconstructs identified in different science identity frameworks, such negotiations best relate to what Carlone and Johnson (2007) conceptualize as performance (e.g., ways of talking and acting). For instance, research demonstrates that women tend to abandon feminine behaviors (e.g., being “girly” and dressing fashionably) when they seek to create a unifying sense of self as a “woman” and a “scientist,” as they perceive such feminine behaviors to be incompatible with masculine behavioral norms in science (Archer et al., 2012). In particular, women in physics have been found to compromise their femininity to perform gender neutrality which, in turn, allows them to fit within the dominant culture of their department (Gonsalves, 2014). Through this abandonment of feminine behaviors, a woman would also be able to demonstrate her competence through “fluency with all forms of scientific talk and ways of acting” (Carlone and Johnson, 2007). This performance would then facilitate self-recognition and recognition by others as a “science person,” where such recognition is an essential aspect of forming a science identity that appears in all the aforementioned identity frameworks (Carlone and Johnson, 2007; Hazari et al., 2010; Hosbein and Barbera, 2020a).
A similar process of negotiation occurs among women seeking to form a chemistry identity (Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). Chemistry graduate students who are women report a perceived need to change their feminine personalities and mannerisms and, in turn, make themselves more masculine if they wish to succeed in future chemistry research careers (Grunert and Bodner, 2011). They also report a need to acquire more masculine characteristics and mannerisms to adequately interact with their peers in a professional setting, specifically by appearing less emotional and more analytical during these interactions (Grunert and Bodner, 2011). Some of these women recognize a change in their own personalities during their time in graduate school, progressively becoming more “severe;” others indicate that they do not wish to change these aspects of their personality and that working in industry or at a research-intensive university would require them to do so (Grunert and Bodner, 2011).
Among women who are successful chemists, research has found that they effectively incorporate a masculine performance into their gender identity, allowing their professional identity to be predominately masculine while their personal identity could remain predominantly feminine (Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). These women further indicate that there are ways to perform femininity (i.e., act like a woman) that contradict with acting like a chemist, where in their own professional interactions they choose to emphasize masculine attributes of ambition and self-interest rather than feminine attributes of compassion, cultivation, and contribution (Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). This adaptability of gender performance to professional and personal contexts may have helped these women succeed in their careers. Further, these women had created their own niche in chemistry, or subfield (Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). Authors of the investigation hypothesize that these subfields may afford a safe space free from gender-based pressures in which women “have the opportunity to simply be the women they are whilst doing the science they love” (Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). Such subfields may be analogous to counterspaces – physical, ideological, or conceptual spaces that function to challenge deficit generalizations and provide a sense of belonging, connectedness, and validation for individuals with minoritized identities (Solorzano et al., 2000; Wade-Jaimes et al., 2021).
These strategies appear to be effective coping mechanisms for remaining in chemistry; however, they require women to either adapt their gender performance or restrict their activities to niche subfields, both of which perpetuate their minoritization. Thus, two questions remain if the discipline is to be truly inclusive of women: (1) How can women who wish to maintain their feminine attributes (e.g., ways of talking and acting) across professional and personal contexts successfully participate in the discipline? and more specifically, (2) How can these women maintain their feminine attributes and successfully participate in common disciplinary practices rather than specialized practices specific to emerging subfields of chemistry? Both of these actions will require identifying, disrupting, and reimagining exclusionary disciplinary norms rather than having women change or adapt so that they might adhere to these exclusionary norms. This work can begin by (1) identifying common disciplinary practices that prompt women's negotiation of self, (2) deconstructing norms surrounding these practices to understand their origin, how they have historically functioned to oppress individuals with minoritized identities, and systems of power that function to uphold them, and then (3) redefining these norms to be inclusive of all individuals. With regard to the second point, we note that our use of the term “minoritized” is intentional and distinct from the term “minority,” as it signifies that inequities are done to cause this position rather than it being inherently fixed (Kayumova and Dou, 2022).
Communicating about NMR spectra: a potentially exclusionary disciplinary practice
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra are some of the most common visuals used by chemists in academic and industrial contexts (Schummer, 2002; Kozma and Russell, 2005), where they serve as material representations of submicroscopic entities and tools that support social discourse (Kozma and Russell, 2005). For instance, organic chemists use NMR spectra to elucidate the molecular structure of synthesis products and to convince others that products possess the intended molecular structure (Kozma and Russell, 2005). During this discourse, chemists use particular spectral features as warrants for their claims about submicroscopic entities under investigation. Through this social use of NMR spectra, individuals integrate themselves into the scientific community of practice (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Kozma and Russell, 2005). When examined through the lens of Carlone and Johnson's (2007) science identity framework, communicating about NMR spectra during social discourse constitutes a performance of one's competence that, in turn, results in recognition by oneself and others as a chemist. Given their widespread use (Schummer, 2002; Kozma and Russell, 2005), communicating about NMR spectra is a routine performance of one's competence for many chemists.Chemistry is characterized by masculine behavioral norms, which include acceptable ways of talking (Seymour and Hewitt, 1997; Eisenhart and Finkel, 1998). Moreover, a body of research documents the gendered nature of language (Lakoff, 1973; Areni and Sparks, 2005; Eckert and Mcconnell-Ginet, 2013), including differences between masculine and feminine communication styles. For instance, masculine communication is often marked by linguistic resources such as references to quantitative information (e.g., “6′4 tall”), judgmental adjectives (e.g., “good”), directives (e.g., “Write that down”), and “I” references (e.g., “I think…”), among others (Mulac et al., 2001). Conversely, feminine communication tends to be marked by linguistic resources such as intensive adverbs (e.g., “really” and “so”), references to affect (e.g., “happy”), uncertainty verbs (e.g., “It seems to be…”), hedges (e.g., “kind of”), and questions (e.g., “What's that?”), among others (Mulac et al., 2001). Self-identified men and women routinely employ a combination of masculine and feminine linguistic resources, with these groups often being more alike in their use of such resources than they are different (Eckert and Mcconnell-Ginet, 2013). However, differences can still be observed, where men tend toward masculine linguistic resources and women tend toward feminine linguistic resources (Mulac et al., 2001; Eckert and Mcconnell-Ginet, 2013). Further, the use of these resources serves as a means through which one constructs and performs their gender identity (Butler, 2011; Eckert and Mcconnell-Ginet, 2013).
Further, the gender order and linguistic norms within a community function to constrain one's linguistic practices (Lakoff, 1973; Eckert and Mcconnell-Ginet, 2013); this means that women may experience conflict in their linguistic practices when linguistic norms within a community are masculine, but they tend to use feminine linguistic resources to construct and perform their gender identity (Eckert and Mcconnell-Ginet, 2013). It is, thus, possible that communicating about NMR spectra is one disciplinary practice that requires women's negotiation of self, namely through the abandonment of feminine linguistic resources and increased adoption of masculine linguistic resources, if they are to form a chemistry identity. Such a possibility aligns with women's reported pressure to abandon their preferred feminine behaviors in exchange for masculine behaviors that characterize the discipline (Grunert and Bodner, 2011), negotiating their sense of self in order to be both a “woman” and a “chemist” (Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018).
Determining whether communicating about NMR spectra prompts women's negotiation of self is a productive first step toward identifying common disciplinary practices that require such a negotiation and, ultimately, deconstructing surrounding norms and redefining them to be inclusive of all individuals. In addition, chemistry education research documents the challenge that language poses to learning spectroscopy (Connor et al., 2021; Fantone et al., 2024). In particular, postsecondary organic chemistry instructors report that language constitutes a barrier to learning the practice of NMR spectral interpretation among undergraduates (Fantone et al., 2024). If communicating about NMR spectra does prompt women's negotiation of self, learning spectroscopy may be further complicated for these individuals, as women may need to simultaneously develop competence in this practice while also negotiating their sense of self to demonstrate, or perform, such competence to their peers and instructors. Moreover, communicating about NMR spectra is often done in English, with research documenting the unique barrier that language poses to learning spectroscopy among Eng+ students, or those who speak English as an additional language (Mundy et al., 2024). Thus, learning NMR spectroscopy may be even further complicated for Eng+ women, as it may require that they simultaneously develop competence and negotiate their sense of self, all while using an additional language.
NMR spectroscopy is included across the postsecondary chemistry curriculum (Connor and Raker, 2022). Therefore, understanding whether communicating about NMR spectra prompts women's negotiation of self may be important for equitably supporting learning throughout their chemistry education. To assist in these efforts, the study herein aims to provide initial insight into whether communicating about NMR spectra may prompt women's negotiation of self.
Theoretical background
This study is guided by a theoretical framework that integrates gender performativity theory, social identity threat theory, gender stigma consciousness, and identity negotiation theory. This integration is used to provide a theoretical foundation through which the overall research aim can be meaningfully addressed, something that each individual theory or construct, in isolation, does not afford.Gender performativity theory
This study draws on gender performativity theory to clarify terminology used and the relationship between these terms, in particular gender, femininity, and masculinity (Butler, 2011). In this theory, gender is defined as a social and cultural construct that comprises the roles, behaviors, expectations, and identities associated with femininity or masculinity within a specific society or culture (Li and Burkholder, 2024). In alignment with this definition, the theory moves away from the homogeneous, cisnormative, and heteronormative categorization of gender (Butler, 2011). In this way, gender performativity theory is distinct from other theories drawn upon in this investigation, as they tend to emerge from a cis-heteronormative perspective.Gender performativity theory further posits that gender is maintained through repeated acts and performances, including gestures and speech, which are shaped by societal expectations (Butler, 2011; Li and Burkholder, 2024). Self-identified women are generally associated with a socially constructed set of attributes, behaviors, and roles termed femininity, and self-identified men are generally associated with a socially constructed set of attributes, behaviors, and roles termed masculinity (Li and Burkholder, 2024). Individuals with nonbinary identities often perform gender in ways outside of these associations. However, this theory also posits that individuals of all gender identities, including self-identified women, men, and nonbinary individuals, may exhibit fluidity in their performance of masculinity and femininity across different contexts. The study herein focuses on self-identified women and those comprising the outgroup in the context of the investigation – self-identified men. The gender performance of nonbinary individuals may variably align with those of this ingroup or the outgroup. Notably, however, STEM fields still minoritize people with nonbinary identities in distinct ways (Miller et al., 2021). Within this work, the terms women and men refer to self-identified women and men, respectively.
Social identity threat theory and gender stigma consciousness
Social identity threat is a broad psychological threat that individuals experience when they perceive they may be negatively treated or devalued in a context because of a specific social identity they hold (Abrams and Hogg, 1999; Major and O’Brien, 2005; Murphy et al., 2007). An individual may face different types of social identity threat depending on their membership in a social group (e.g., gender, race, socioeconomic status, etc.; Steele et al., 2002). For instance, a body of research documents women's experience of social identity threat in STEM domains (e.g., Spencer et al., 1999; Conway-Klaassen, 2010; Shapiro and Williams, 2012; Deemer et al., 2014; van Veelen et al., 2019), in particular their experience of stereotype threat – a type of social identity threat that occurs when an individual fears they will be evaluated in reference to some group-based stereotype (Steele and Aronson, 1995; Steele, 1997). When experiencing this threat in STEM domains, women worry that others will interpret their performance as confirming a negative stereotype that women's science and math abilities are inferior to those of men (Spencer et al., 1999; Shapiro and Williams, 2012). Research finds that experiencing this threat impairs women's academic performance (Smith and White, 2002; Good et al., 2008; Walton and Spencer, 2009) and causes them to avoid STEM majors and careers where they lack a sense of belonging (Davies et al., 2005; Cheryan et al., 2009). In chemistry, women's experience of this threat has been found to negatively impact their intent to engage in undergraduate research (Deemer et al., 2014), a high impact practice associated with increased student retention (Nagda et al., 1998), pursuit of graduate education (Hathaway et al., 2002), and learning gains for research skills (Bauer and Bennett, 2003).A number of variables contribute to one's vulnerability to experiencing social identity threat in a given context; among the most commonly investigated variables are stigma consciousness (Pinel, 1999, 2002, 2004; Brown and Pinel, 2003), domain identification (Steele and Aronson, 1995; Steele, 1997), and group identification (Schmader, 2002). General awareness of oneself as a member of a stigmatized social group in a setting in which the stigma is relevant is a preliminary condition to experiencing social identity threat (Casad et al., 2019), though the extent to which someone is acutely aware of or focused on one's stigmatized status in a setting increases their vulnerability to experiencing this threat (Pinel, 1999, 2002; Brown and Pinel, 2003). This acute awareness or focus on one's stigmatized status is termed stigma consciousness (Pinel, 2004); in other terms, stigma consciousness refers to the extent to which individuals believe their stigmatized status pervades interactions with members of the outgroup (Pinel, 2004). Gender stigma consciousness is, then, the extent to which one is acutely aware of or focused on stigma attached to their gender (Crocker and Major, 1989; Pinel, 2004). Domain identification refers to the extent to which one values the domain of interest, has requisite skills to succeed in it, and perceives it as being useful to their future career (Steele, 1997). Group identification refers to the extent to which one's membership in a social group (e.g., a gender identity) forms a central part of their self-concept (Phinney, 1992; Hoffman, 2006). For an individual who is knowingly a member of a stigmatized social group in a context where that stigma is relevant, their vulnerability to experiencing social identity threat increases with the extent to which they are acutely aware of the stigma surrounding the social group (Pinel, 2002; Brown and Pinel, 2003), value that domain and have requisite skills to succeed in it while also viewing the domain as important to their future success (Steele and Aronson, 1995; Steele, 1997), and hold membership in the stigmatized social group as part of their personal identity (Phinney, 1992; Hoffman, 2006).
Moreover, one's vulnerability to social identity threat is not necessarily inherent to the individual but, rather, can be modulated by situational cues (Murphy et al., 2007; Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2008; Hall et al., 2018). Threatening situational cues are those that increase the saliency of one's stigmatized status and function to confirm one's potential for social devaluation based on this status (Casad et al., 2019), effectively increasing their vulnerability to social identity threat (Murphy et al., 2007). For instance, research suggests that for women in STEM, the numerical underrepresentation of women in a setting serves as one threatening situational cue that increases their vulnerability to social identity threat (Murphy et al., 2007). Research further suggests that these cues may specifically function to situationally-induce stigma consciousness, one variable contributing to an individual's vulnerability to social identity threat (Pinel, 2002; Brown and Pinel, 2003). Research on women's gender stigma consciousness, in particular, indicates that such consciousness can either be dispositional to an individual (i.e., trait consciousness) or situationally induced by cues which signal that a particular stigma is relevant in a given context (i.e., state consciousness). Moreover, research suggests that such cues may need to constitute strong situational factors in order to situationally-induce gender stigma consciousness among women (e.g., being presented with egregious examples of men discriminating against women prior to completing a stigma-relevant task; Pinel, 2004).
On the other hand, identity-safe cues are those that decrease the saliency of one's stigmatized status and function to disconfirm the relevance of a stigmatized identity (Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2008; Casad et al., 2019), thereby creating a state where one's membership in a stigmatized social group is no longer an obstacle to success (i.e., a state of identity safety) and vulnerability to social identity threat decreases (Davies et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2018). Research identifies a number of strategies for creating identity-safe environments that reduce individuals’ vulnerability to social identity threat, including valuing diverse perspectives and approaches (Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2008), affirming individuals’ sense of belonging (Walton and Cohen, 2007, 2011), and creating opportunities for individuals with a stigmatized identity to affirm their individuality (Ambady et al., 2004). For example, research demonstrates that women engineers experience less social identity threat when in organizations perceived to have more gender-inclusive policies (Hall et al., 2018). Research further demonstrates that black women in STEM environments with identity-safe cues experience greater trust and sense of belonging compared to environments without such cues (Pietri et al., 2018).
Identity negotiation theory
Identity negotiation theory posits that the formation of an individual's identity is an ongoing and dynamic process dependent upon the physical and social contexts in which one finds themselves (e.g., Erikson, 1968; Grotevant, 1987; Harter, 1990). Within these contexts, an individual iteratively reestablishes and reevaluates who they are relative to others in that context (e.g., Erikson, 1980; Waterman, 1993; Kleiber, 1999). When encountering each new context, an individual is then challenged with maintaining a balance between their self-continuity (i.e., the subjective sense of being the same person across time) and iterative redefinition (Erikson, 1968; Grotevant, 1987). This task involves reconciling any conflicts between the self and changing contexts, where successful reconciliation allows one to maintain a positive sense of wellbeing (Erikson, 1968; Grotevant, 1987). Thus, identity formation is an adaptive process of negotiations between self and context (Chatman et al., 2005); specifically, this process involves a series of both conscious and unconscious psychological events that occur incrementally over time (Chatman et al., 2005; Swann et al., 2009).Identity negotiation theory further explores the role of personal identity and social group membership in the context of negotiation processes (Pruitt, 2001). Personal identity constitutes a representation of the self that distinguishes one from others (Brewer, 1991; Luhtanen and Crocker, 1992; Thoits and Virshup, 1997); it reflects one's set of attributes (e.g., personality characteristics and behaviors) that they consider to be individuating. Essentially, personal identity distinguishes an individual as a unique person (Chatman et al., 2005). However, membership in a social group (e.g., race, gender, socioeconomic status, profession, political affiliation, or religious affiliation) can hold deep meaning to an individual's sense of self and help distinguish themselves as a unique person, effectively becoming part of their set of attributes they consider individuating (Thoits and Virshup, 1997); in such instances, membership in the social group becomes part of one's personal identity. For example, an individual may view themselves as belonging to the gender category ‘woman,’ though being a woman may also hold deep meaning to their sense of self and serve to distinguish themselves from others. Likewise, an individual may view themselves as a member of the chemistry community of practice, where being a chemist may be similarly individuating. Further, an individual can create their own meaning surrounding membership in a social group rather than simply accept all its characteristic attributes when constructing their personal identity (Fordham, 1988). This notion accounts for observations that women tend to negotiate their sense of self in order to be both a “woman” and a “scientist,” a process that often involves redefining one's notion of what it means to be a “woman” or “scientist,” (Archer et al., 2012; Danielsson, 2012). Notably, however, this negotiation takes place in a masculine and heteronormative context where women who do not perform their gender in such ways are typically excluded (Danielsson, 2012; Calás et al., 2013; Avraamidou, 2020).
The intersection of identity negotiation theory and social identity threat theory
When social group membership is part of an individual's personal identity, and the individual enters a context in which the social group is stigmatized, the individual is susceptible to social identity threat (Schmader, 2002). Identity negotiation processes often occur in response to this threat (Chatman et al., 2005), with these processes serving as a means through which individuals attain identity fit in a particular context (Deaux and Ethier, 1998). Further, when one's stigmatized status is more salient in a particular context, there is often more need for identity negotiation (Chatman et al., 2005). This is because greater salience of one's stigmatized group membership may induce stigma consciousness (Pinel, 2004) and increase vulnerability to social identity threat (Murphy et al., 2007), with identity negotiation processes often occurring in response to this threat (Deaux and Ethier, 1998; Chatman et al., 2005).Identity negotiation processes take the form of either identity-enhancement strategies or identity-negation strategies (Deaux and Ethier, 1998). Identity-enhancement strategies function to enhance identity in response to threat and may include reaffirming a specific identity by ascribing increased importance to it, increasing contact with individuals who share the specific identity, or working to change social systems to allow for expression of the identity (Deaux and Ethier, 1998). On the other hand, identity-negation strategies function to negate identity and may include abandoning an identity or decreasing the importance of an identity without completing abandoning it (Deaux and Ethier, 1998). Code-switching serves as one such strategy, whereby individuals intentionally turn on and off certain attributes and behaviors associated with group membership (Cross and Strauss, 1998; Chatman et al., 2005). These latter strategies align with women's abandonment of feminine mannerisms and behaviors as they seek to create a unified sense of self as both a “woman” and “chemist” (Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018) and, more broadly, as a “woman” and “scientist” (Archer et al., 2012; Danielsson, 2012).
As one powerful example of the intersection of social identity threat theory and identity negotiation theory that underscores the importance of the study herein, one investigation found that women experiencing social identity threat regarding their leadership abilities reacted against the threat by adopting a more masculine communication style (i.e., a means of attaining identity fit in that context); (Hippel et al., 2011). However, women's adoption of a more masculine communication style ironically resulted in others rating them as less warm and likeable, with evaluators further indicating less willingness to comply with their requests (Hippel et al., 2011). Such results underscore the need for work focused on identifying, deconstructing, and redefining norms that are exclusionary of women in order to approach gender-inclusivity in the discipline.
Conceptual framework
Determining whether a particular disciplinary practice prompts an individual's negotiation of self is inherently challenging. This is because such negotiation processes occur incrementally and sometimes unconsciously (Chatman et al., 2005; Swann et al., 2009), meaning that an individual may not be able to perceive and, thus, report that these processes are occurring except through reflection on their prolonged experiences. However, reflection on long-term experiences may make it difficult for an individual to pinpoint which specific disciplinary practices did or did not require such a negotiation. For instance, previous research documenting women's negotiation of self in chemistry used an interview-based methodology in which participants reflected on their long-term experiences in the discipline (Grunert and Bodner, 2011; Miller-Friedmann et al., 2018). In these interviews, participants identified overall changes to their feminine attributes as they progressed through a given career stage, though such changes are not tied to specific practices or contexts (Grunert and Bodner, 2011). To determine whether engaging in a particular practice prompts women's negotiation of self, a proxy measure of this negotiation is thus needed.Identity negotiation processes often occur in response to social identity threat (Deaux and Ethier, 1998; Chatman et al., 2005). Determining whether an individual experiences increased vulnerability to social identity threat when engaging in a disciplinary practice would, thus, serve as a proxy measure of these processes. Further, women's gender stigma consciousness (i.e., acute awareness of or focus on stigma attached to one's gender) contributes to their vulnerability to experiencing social identity threat in various contexts (Pinel, 1999, 2002, 2004; Brown and Pinel, 2003). Determining whether women experience increased gender stigma consciousness when engaging in a disciplinary practice would, thus, serve as preliminary evidence that the practice may prompt their negotiation of self. Women's increased awareness of stigma surrounding their gender when engaging in a practice would further suggest that women may perceive some difference between attributes of their gender and those comprising the outgroup, a perception which necessarily precedes one's negotiation of self (Deaux and Ethier, 1998).
An individual can experience situationally induced gender stigma consciousness in response to threating cues that signal a particular stigma is relevant in a given setting (Pinel, 2004). On the other hand, identity-safe cues function to reduce vulnerability to social identity threat by signaling that a particular stigma is irrelevant for success in the setting (Davies et al., 2005; Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2008; Hall et al., 2018). For the study herein, simply participating in a disciplinary practice (i.e., communicating about NMR spectra) is investigated for potentially threating cues that may result in women's negotiation of self. To facilitate this investigation, this disciplinary practice is incorporated into a traditional task and a task with multiple identity-safe cues. Experiencing greater gender stigma consciousness on the traditional task versus the task with multiple identity-safe cues would then serve as evidence that women experience vulnerability to social identity threat when engaging in this disciplinary practice, as well as preliminary evidence that this practice may prompt women's negotiation of self.
Research goal and questions
This study aims to provide initial insight into whether communicating about NMR spectra is a disciplinary practice that prompts women's negotiation of self. To accomplish this aim, the study addresses two specific research questions:1. To what degree is communicating about NMR spectra on a traditional task versus a task with identity-safe cues associated with greater gender stigma consciousness for women in postsecondary organic chemistry courses?
2. To what degree is gender stigma consciousness associated with women's performance or confidence when communicating about NMR spectra in postsecondary organic chemistry courses?
Findings from Research Question 1 provide insight into whether communicating about NMR spectra is a practice for which women experience increased awareness of stigma attached to their gender and are, in turn, vulnerable to social identity threat. Women exhibiting greater gender stigma consciousness on a traditional task versus one with identity-safe cues, in absence of the outgroup (i.e., men) exhibiting greater gender stigma consciousness, would constitute evidence of women's vulnerability to social identity threat while communicating about NMR spectra. It would further serve as preliminary evidence that communicating about NMR spectra may be a disciplinary practice that prompts women's negotiation of self. Findings from Research Question 1 will also help identify identity-safe situational cues that reduce women's vulnerability to social identity threat when communicating about NMR spectra and, in turn, provide insight into how norms surrounding this practice may be redefined to make it more inclusive. Findings from Research Question 2 will provide insight into the possible relationship between redefining norms surrounding this disciplinary practice and women's associated performance and confidence, providing a foundation through which future research can more deeply investigate causation.
Methods
Study participants, context, and ethical considerations
Participants included undergraduates enrolled in a second-semester organic chemistry lecture course at a research-intensive, public university in the southeastern United States during Fall 2021 and Spring 2022. This is the first undergraduate chemistry course at this university where NMR spectroscopy is taught in detail. Participants were enrolled across five sections of the course, with three sections taught by one instructor in Fall 2021 and two sections taught by another instructor in Spring 2022. Of the 735 students enrolled in the course across semesters, 543 individuals (73.9%) consented to participate and completed the study. An undergraduate study population was selected to minimize the likelihood that participants had already undergone extensive identity negotiation processes to attain identity fit surrounding this practice. Self-reported demographics of the study sample are summarized in Table 1. From the demographic data collected, participants who selected ‘woman’ or ‘man’ may be cisgender or transgender; we refer to these participants as self-identified women and men, respectively.| Demographic variable | Percentage of study sample (%) |
|---|---|
| Gender | |
| Woman | 65.2 |
| Man | 28.5 |
| Nonbinary | 3.3 |
| Prefer to self-describe | 1.8 |
| Prefer not to disclose | 1.1 |
| Race | |
| White | 52.2 |
| Asian | 21.2 |
| Black | 9.4 |
| American Indian or Alaska Native | 1.7 |
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 0.2 |
| More than one race | 12.0 |
| Prefer not to disclose | 3.5 |
| Ethnicity | |
| Hispanic or Latino or Spanish Origin | 25.1 |
| Not Hispanic or Latin or Spanish Origin | 72.1 |
| Prefer not to disclose | 3.5 |
The university at which the study took place is a Predominantly White Institution, though the percent enrollment of Hispanic students approached the minimum requirement for federal designation as a Hispanic-Serving Institution (i.e., 25.0%) at the time of data collection. The percentage of participants in the study sample who identify as Hispanic, Latino, or of Spanish origin exceeds this minimum (see Table 1). The study was approved on August 19, 2021, by the Institutional Review Board of the university at which the study was conceptualized and data was collected and primarily analyzed (STUDY003120).
Researcher context and positionality
The study team includes the principal investigator (MC) and two undergraduate student researchers (AP and AB). MC conceived the project, collected the data, conducted the majority of statistical analyses, interpreted all results, and authored the paper. AP and AB assisted with directed statistical analysis. The research perspective of the principal investigator is informed by her experiences as a white, cisgender woman having a lower middle-class upbringing in a socioeconomically disadvantaged region of the southern United States. She is currently a pre-tenure, Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at a medium, private majority-undergraduate university in the southern United States. Her department exclusively serves undergraduates. She instructs undergraduate-level chemistry courses and leads a group of undergraduate student researchers in conducting chemistry education research. A substantive portion of her prior research focuses on teaching and learning NMR spectroscopy; this experience, combined with her experience as a woman in chemistry and commitment to identifying and disrupting inequities in the discipline, shapes how she perceives phenomena, which may be different from others’ perceptions. The principal investigator remains cognizant of the privileges afforded by her different identities, especially those relating to her race and profession, and acknowledges that these aspects influence all aspects of her research (from conceiving the study to presenting findings).Questionnaire development
A questionnaire was developed to address the research questions (see Fig. 1). The questionnaire contained one of two possible instructional prompts, an NMR communication task containing a free-response item and the NMR Lexical Representational Competence (NMR-LRC) instrument (Connor et al., 2021), and a version of the Social Identities and Attitudes Scale (SIAS; Picho and Brown, 2011) modified in this study for use in chemistry learning environments (see Fig. 1). This modified version of the SIAS is referred to as the Social Identities and Attitudes Scale – Chemistry (SIAS-Chem). | ||
| Fig. 1 Overview of prompts and measures included on the questionnaire. | ||
For the study herein, the SIAS was modified for use in postsecondary chemistry learning environments (i.e., the SIAS-Chem) and used to measure gender stigma consciousness. While the SIAS measures other constructs in addition to gender stigma consciousness that are not the primary focus of this investigation, modification and subsequent evaluation of the SIAS is part of a larger, ongoing investigation by the study team. To modify the SIAS for use in postsecondary chemistry learning environments, items referencing mathematics were revised to reference chemistry (see Appendix 1). These items were those that loaded onto factors corresponding to mathematics identification and negative mathematics affect. The modified SIAS-Chem thus included 30 items and six intended factors: Gender Stigma Consciousness, Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness, Gender Identification, Ethnic Identification, Chemistry Identification, and Negative Chemistry Affect (see Appendix 1). All items utilize a 7-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Item ordering was maintained during modification. Definitions of each subconstruct measured by the SIAS-Chem are modified from definitions used in studies on the original SIAS's development (Picho and Brown, 2011; Smith and Cokley, 2016) and provided below:
• Gender Stigma Consciousness – The extent to which one is aware of stigma attached to their gender.
• Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness – The extent to which one is aware of stigma attached to their ethnicity.
• Gender Identification – The extent to which an individual's gender forms a central part of their self-concept.
• Ethnic Identification – The extent to which an individual forms their identity based on membership within their ethnic group.
• Chemistry Identification – The extent to which an individual values chemistry, has requisite skills to succeed in the discipline, and perceives it as being useful to their future career.
• Negative Chemistry Affect – The extent to which an individual experiences negative feelings of dejection during chemistry test taking.
Data collection
All participants completed the questionnaire online via Qualtrics following instruction on NMR spectroscopy. Students received an email invitation to complete the questionnaire for course bonus points, and only the responses of students who consented to participate in the study were used for analysis. This study employed a post-test two experimental groups design, whereby participants are randomly assigned to one of two experimental groups, each group receives a different intervention, and a post-test is conducted (Cohen et al., 2011). In line with this design, participants were randomly assigned to either the Traditional Prompt or Identity-Safe Prompt at the beginning of the questionnaire (see Fig. 1). After receiving a prompt, all participants completed the free-response item, the NMR-LRC instrument (Connor et al., 2021), and the SIAS-Chem (see Fig. 1). Completion of the questionnaire took approximately 30 minutes.Psychometric evaluation of the SIAS-Chem
Psychometric evaluation of the SIAS-Chem involved use of confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability coefficients, and measurement invariance testing. CFA was used to evaluate the internal structure of the SIAS-Chem, and McDonald's omega (ω) was used to evaluate the reliability of each subscale. McDonald's ω is a reliability coefficient similar to Cronbach's alpha, though McDonald's ω is used with congeneric models having unequal item loadings (Komperda et al., 2018). After this evaluation, measurement invariance was tested to support a group comparison between women receiving the Traditional Prompt and women receiving the Identity-Safe Prompt (i.e., Research Question 1). Greater gender stigma consciousness among women receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt, in absence of the majority group (i.e., men) exhibiting greater gender stigma consciousness, would constitute evidence of women's vulnerability to social identity threat while communicating about NMR spectra. Therefore, measurement invariance was also tested to support a group comparison between men receiving the Traditional Prompt and men receiving the Identity-Safe prompt, as such a comparison is necessary to attribute any difference observed among women to vulnerability to social identity threat and not some other phenomenon.| Factor | Item | Mean | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis | Loading |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender Stigma Consciousness | My gender influences how teachers interpret my behavior | 3.63 | 1.92 | 0.08 | 1.88 | 0.71 |
| Most people judge me on the basis of my gender | 3.28 | 1.81 | 0.35 | 2.14 | 0.78 | |
| My gender affects how people treat me | 4.11 | 1.90 | −0.18 | 1.98 | 0.87 | |
| My gender affects how people act towards me | 4.02 | 1.89 | −0.16 | 1.96 | 0.87 | |
| Members of the opposite sex interpret my behavior based on my gender | 4.21 | 1.79 | −0.26 | 2.20 | 0.80 | |
| Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness | Most people judge me on the basis of my ethnicity | 3.52 | 1.96 | 0.22 | 1.86 | 0.72 |
| My ethnicity affects how my peers interact with me | 3.34 | 1.93 | 0.36 | 2.00 | 0.86 | |
| My ethnicity influences how teachers interact with me | 2.90 | 1.77 | 0.60 | 2.36 | 0.84 | |
| My ethnicity affects how I interact with people of other ethnicities | 3.28 | 1.99 | 0.37 | 1.87 | 0.77 | |
| People from other ethnic groups interpret my behavior based on my ethnicity | 3.44 | 1.85 | 0.21 | 1.96 | 0.87 | |
| Gender Identification | My gender influences how I feel about myself | 3.76 | 2.10 | 0.01 | 1.67 | 0.81 |
| My gender contributes to my self confidence | 3.86 | 1.94 | −0.04 | 1.88 | 0.80 | |
| My gender is central in defining who I am | 3.43 | 1.89 | 0.26 | 1.98 | 0.73 | |
| My identity is strongly tied to my gender | 3.50 | 1.89 | 0.20 | 1.93 | 0.77 | |
| Ethnic Identification | I value my ethnic background | 5.47 | 1.70 | −0.86 | 2.72 | 0.83 |
| I feel a strong attachment to my ethnicity | 4.71 | 2.07 | −0.38 | 1.79 | 0.94 | |
| My ethnicity is an important reflection of who I am | 4.49 | 2.08 | −0.31 | 1.79 | 0.89 | |
| I am connected to my ethnic heritage | 4.54 | 2.10 | −0.32 | 1.76 | 0.91 | |
| Chemistry Identification | Chemistry is important to me | 4.73 | 1.64 | −0.33 | 2.31 | 0.69 |
| Being good at chemistry will be useful to me in my future career | 5.03 | 1.84 | −0.67 | 2.35 | 0.77 | |
| My chemistry abilities are important to my academic success | 5.61 | 1.57 | −1.15 | 3.65 | 0.81 | |
| Doing well in chemistry matters to me | 5.80 | 1.40 | −1.14 | 3.78 | 0.79 | |
| I value chemistry | 5.20 | 1.60 | −0.62 | 2.63 | 0.79 | |
| Doing well in chemistry is critical to my future success | 5.35 | 1.64 | −0.82 | 2.80 | 0.83 | |
| Negative Chemistry Affect | When doing difficult chemistry problems on a test I… | |||||
| Experience doubt about my chemistry abilities | 5.34 | 1.74 | −0.89 | 2.83 | 0.68 | |
| Feel like I’m letting myself down | 5.04 | 1.90 | −0.67 | 2.28 | 0.82 | |
| Start to lose confidence in my abilities | 5.08 | 1.87 | −0.71 | 2.36 | 0.83 | |
| Feel like a failure | 4.40 | 2.17 | −0.23 | 1.62 | 0.94 | |
| Feel hopeless | 4.22 | 2.22 | −0.11 | 1.56 | 0.92 | |
| Feel like giving up | 4.05 | 2.24 | 0.02 | 1.53 | 0.84 | |
CFA was conducted in RStudio using the “lavaan” package (Rosseel, 2012). To accommodate the non-normally distributed data, the robust maximum likelihood (MLR) estimator was used to estimate model parameters (Li, 2016). Model fit is evaluated using multiple statistics in CFA, including the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and χ2 statistic (Worthington and Whittaker, 2006). Conventional threshold values for acceptable model fit include CFI ≥ 0.90, TLI ≥ 0.90, RMSEA ≤ 0.08, and SRMR ≤ 0.10 (Hu and Bentler, 1999; Worthington and Whittaker, 2006), and conventional threshold values for good model fit include CFI ≥ 0.95, TLI ≥ 0.95, RMSEA ≤ 0.06, and SRMR ≤ 0.08 (Hu and Bentler, 1999; Worthington and Whittaker, 2006). These conventional threshold values are considered guidelines rather than strict rules (Marsh et al., 2004). Further, the χ2 statistic should be nonsignificant; however, this is unlikely due to the sample size.
Fit statistics from the six-factor correlated model exceeded the conventional criteria for good fit, where χ2 (n = 543, df = 384, p < 0.001) = 804.1, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.05, and SRMR = 0.04. Standardized item loadings ranged from 0.68 to 0.94 (see Table 2), and covariance coefficients ranged from 0.09 to 0.71 (see Table 10 in Appendix 2). Factor scores for each participant were generated using the CFA model.
With evidence of unidimensionality collected for five of the six factors, McDonald's ω coefficients were calculated using the “psych” package in RStudio (Revelle, 2018). Higher values approaching one are preferred and interpreted as being good (Guttman, 1945; Cronbach, 1951; McDonald, 1999). Coefficients approach one for the five unidimensional factors (see Table 3), providing evidence of reliability for those factors. The coefficient also approached one for the factor Gender Identification (see Table 3), though this measure may not provide meaningful evidence of reliability given that McDonald's ω is only valid for use with single-factor models.
| Factor | ω |
|---|---|
| Gender Stigma Consciousness | 0.92 |
| Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness | 0.92 |
| Gender Identification | 0.91 |
| Ethnic Identification | 0.95 |
| Chemistry Identification | 0.94 |
| Negative Chemistry Affect | 0.96 |
After collecting initial evidence of validity and reliability for the SIAS-Chem, measurement invariance was tested for the configural, metric, scalar, and conservative models comparing women by instructional prompt (i.e., Traditional Prompt or Identity-Safe Prompt) and men by instructional prompt (i.e., Traditional Prompt or Identity-Safe Prompt). Testing was conducted following the procedure in Rocabado et al. (2020), with the MLR estimator used to estimate model parameters. Significance was set at α = 0.05. The analysis was completed using the “lavaan” package in RStudio.
Conservative invariance was established for women by instructional prompt, as indicated by the continued data-model fit, lack of significant change in χ2, and lack of change in other fit statistics (i.e., CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA) when comparing the scalar and conservative models (i.e., the conservative testing level; see Table 4), along with the continued data-model fit and lack of change in data-model fit at all other testing levels (see Table 4). Conservative invariance implies that data from each group are sufficiently represented by the same factor model to facilitate meaningful comparisons of either factor scores generated from CFA or observed scale scores (Rocabado et al., 2020). Either factor scores or observed scale scores of women receiving the Traditional Prompt versus Identity-Safe Prompt can thus be meaningfully compared to address Research Question 1.
| Testing level | χ 2 | df | p-Value | CFI | SRMR | RMSEA | Δχ2 | Δdf | p-Value | ΔCFI | ΔSRMR | ΔRMSEA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline (Traditional Prompt: n = 175) | 572.3 | 384 | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.05 | 0.06 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Baseline (Identity-Safe Prompt: n = 179) | 567.7 | 384 | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.05 | 0.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Configural | 1139.9 | 768 | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.05 | 0.05 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Metric | 1162.2 | 792 | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 22.3 | 24 | 0.561 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 |
| Scalar | 1185.6 | 816 | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 23.4 | 24 | 0.496 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Conservative | 1198.5 | 846 | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 12.9 | 30 | 0.997 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Further, scalar invariance was established for men by instructional prompt, as indicated by the significant change in χ2 (Δχ2 = 48.6, Δdf = 30, p = 0.017) and change in CFI (ΔCFI = −0.01) when comparing the scalar and conservative models (i.e., the conservative testing level; see Table 5), along with the lack of change in data-model fit at all other testing levels (see Table 5). Scalar invariance implies that data from each group are sufficiently represented by the same factor model to facilitate meaningful comparisons of factor scores but not observed scale scores (Rocabado et al., 2020). The lower level of invariance may be due to the smaller number of men in the study sample. Nonetheless, factor scores between men receiving the Traditional Prompt versus Identity-Safe Prompt could still be meaningfully compared to address Research Question 1.
| Testing level | χ 2 | df | p-Value | CFI | SRMR | RMSEA | Δχ2 | Δdf | p-Value | ΔCFI | ΔSRMR | ΔRMSEA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baseline (Traditional Prompt: n = 83) | 621.0 | 384 | 0.001 | 0.89 | 0.07 | 0.09 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Baseline (Identity-Safe Prompt: n = 72) | 614.0 | 384 | 0.001 | 0.88 | 0.08 | 0.09 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Configural | 1234.9 | 768 | 0.001 | 0.88 | 0.08 | 0.09 | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Metric | 1261.1 | 792 | 0.001 | 0.88 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 26.2 | 24 | 0.292 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Scalar | 1296.9 | 816 | 0.001 | 0.88 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 35.8 | 24 | 0.057 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Conservative | 1345.5 | 846 | 0.001 | 0.87 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 48.6 | 30 | 0.017 | −0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Both the conservative invariance established among women participants and the scalar invariance established among men participants provide support for comparing factor scores, though observed scale scores among women participants could also be meaningfully compared. In an effort to maintain consistency across analyses, factor scores from the SIAS-Chem are exclusively used for the investigation herein rather than observed scale scores. Factor scores are also a more precise measure than observed scale scores, as factor scores do not include item measurement errors (Putnick and Bornstein, 2016).
Data analysis
Once measurement invariance was established, data obtained from the SIAS-Chem were analyzed using inferential statistics to address Research Question 1. Mann–Whitney tests were used to evaluate differences in factor scores on each SIAS-Chem factor for women receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt (Sheskin, 2011). Bonferroni-adjusted significance was set at 0.008 (α = 0.05/6) to account for the increased likelihood of type I errors (i.e., false-positive) when conducting multiple tests across the six factors. Effect sizes (r) were calculated after significance testing (Cohen, 1992). Small, medium, and large effects were approximated using values of 0.10, 0.30, and 0.50, respectively (Cohen, 1992), though there are no universal, absolute cutoff criteria. These analyses were then repeated for men receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt.To address Research Question 2, participants’ total performance scores on the NMR-LRC were determined using the total number of correct responses, with possible scores ranging from 0.0 to 10.0. Total confidence scores on the NMR-LRC were determined using the average confidence score across NMR-LRC items, with possible scores ranging from 0.0 to 100.0. Descriptive statistics were then evaluated to summarize these distributions. Following descriptive statistics, Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (ρ) were calculated to evaluate correlations between gender stigma consciousness factor scores from the SIAS-Chem and total performance scores for women, as well as correlations between gender stigma consciousness factor scores from the SIAS-Chem and their total confidence scores. Bonferroni-adjusted significance was set at 0.008 (α = 0.05/6) to account for the increased likelihood of type I errors across the six tests used. Spearman's ρ is the nonparametric equivalent of Pearson's coefficient (Sheskin, 2011). While ρ < 0.1 is widely considered a weak relationship and ρ > 0.9 is widely considered a very strong relationship, there are no absolute cutoff criteria for intermediate values (Schober and Schwarte, 2018). All descriptive and inferential statistics were completed using Stata 17.0 (StataCorp, 2021).
Results and discussion
To address Research Question 1, inferential statistics are reported for the SIAS-Chem by instructional prompt among women participants. These results are followed by inferential statistics for the SIAS-Chem by instructional prompt among men participants. To address Research Question 2, descriptive statistics are presented for the NMR-LRC, followed by inferential statistics investigating associations between women's gender stigma consciousness factor scores and NMR-LRC total performance and confidence scores.RQ1: To what degree is communicating about NMR spectra on a traditional task versus a task with identity-safe cues associated with greater gender stigma consciousness for women in postsecondary organic chemistry courses?
Results of the Mann–Whitney U tests indicate that women who received the Traditional Prompt had greater gender stigma consciousness factor scores than women who received the Identity-Safe Prompt (see Table 6). The effect size of this difference falls between small to medium (see Table 6). The effect size corresponding to the difference between ethnicity stigma consciousness factor scores was also substantive, despite the p-value being insignificant (see Table 6); this nonsignificant association suggests that the sample size may be too small to detect this difference. Thus, ethnicity stigma consciousness factor scores may also be higher for women receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt. There was no evidence of differences in factor scores between prompt types for the other measured constructs among women participants (see Table 6).| Factor | z-Score | p-Value | Effect size (r) | Median (traditional prompt) | Median (identity-safe prompt) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Initial significance was set at α = 0.05, and the Bonferroni adjusted significance level was set at 0.008.a Corresponds to significance at p < 0.008. Small, medium, and large effects are approximated using values of 0.10, 0.30, and 0.50, respectively. | |||||
| Gender Stigma Consciousness | 3.19 | 0.001a | 0.17 | 0.49 | 0.03 |
| Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness | 2.43 | 0.015 | 0.13 | 0.19 | −0.29 |
| Gender Identification | 1.58 | 0.115 | 0.08 | 0.27 | 0.28 |
| Ethnic Identification | 1.61 | 0.107 | 0.09 | 0.46 | 0.26 |
| Chemistry Identification | 0.50 | 0.620 | 0.03 | 0.21 | 0.01 |
| Negative Chemistry Affect | 1.97 | 0.049 | 0.10 | 0.33 | 0.21 |
Further, there was no evidence of a difference in gender stigma consciousness factor scores across prompt types for men participants (see Table 7). Effect sizes corresponding to differences in chemistry identification and negative chemistry affect factor scores among men participants receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt were substantive, despite p-values being insignificant (see Table 7); the sample size may, therefore, be too small to detect these differences. Thus, chemistry identification factor scores may be lower for men receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt, and negative chemistry affect factor scores may be higher for men receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt. There was no evidence of differences in factor scores between prompt types for the other measured constructs (see Table 7).
| Factor | z-Score | p-Value | Effect size (r) | Median (traditional prompt) | Median (identity-safe prompt) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Initial significance was set at α = 0.05, and the Bonferroni adjusted significance level was set at 0.008. | |||||
| Gender Stigma Consciousness | 0.56 | 0.580 | 0.04 | −0.29 | 0.04 |
| Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness | 0.63 | 0.532 | 0.05 | −0.15 | −0.48 |
| Gender Identification | 0.34 | 0.735 | 0.03 | −0.62 | −0.72 |
| Ethnic Identification | 0.26 | 0.795 | 0.02 | 0.17 | −0.14 |
| Chemistry Identification | 2.21 | 0.082 | 0.14 | −0.69 | −0.25 |
| Negative Chemistry Affect | 1.74 | 0.027 | 0.18 | 0.50 | 0.00 |
Collectively, these results suggest that communicating about NMR spectra on a traditional task versus a task with identity-safe cues is associated with greater gender stigma consciousness for women in postsecondary organic chemistry courses. The difference in gender stigma consciousness factor scores among women participants provides primary evidence of this association, with the absence of such a difference among men participants (i.e., the majority outgroup) serving as supporting evidence. Further, the effect size of this difference among women participants is substantive, indicating this phenomenon is not negligible (Cohen, 1992). These findings further suggest that women experience vulnerability to social identity threat when communicating about NMR spectra. Because identity negotiation processes occur in response to social identity threat, communicating about NMR spectra may, therefore, be a common disciplinary practice that prompts women's negotiation of self. Moreover, the incorporation of identity-safe cues appears to reduce women's vulnerability to social identity threat when engaging in this practice. While these identity-safe cues do not serve to redefine exclusionary norms, they do help create a temporary space in which these norms may not apply. The reduction of women's vulnerability to social identity threat when in this temporary space thus serves as evidence that this practice could be made more inclusive through the redefining of surrounding norms.
Further, the substantive effect size corresponding to the difference in ethnicity stigma consciousness factor scores among women participants suggest that ethnically minoritized women who received the Traditional Prompt may have experienced greater ethnicity stigma consciousness (in addition to greater gender stigma consciousness) compared to ethnically minoritized women who received the Identity-Safe Prompt (see Table 6). The covariance coefficient (0.637, p < 0.001) between the gender stigma consciousness factor and ethnicity stigma consciousness factor on the SIAS-Chem was also moderate (see Table 10 in Appendix 2), suggesting these constructs were correlated for study participants. These findings align with prior research suggesting that ethnically minoritized women experiencing heightened awareness of stigma attached to their gender also experience heightened awareness of stigma attached to their ethnicity (Smith and Cokley, 2016). It is important to note that a substantive portion of the study sample identified as Hispanic, Latino, or of Spanish origin (see Table 1). Women with this doubly minoritized identity or others may, therefore, be at a heightened risk of experiencing social identity threat when communicating about NMR spectra. Moreover, identity-safe cues intended to reduce women's gender stigma consciousness when communicating about NMR spectra may have also functioned to reduce ethnically minoritized women's ethnicity stigma consciousness, pointing toward one potential strategy through which this practice could be made more inclusive for these individuals.
When considering the substantive effect sizes corresponding to differences in chemistry identification and negative chemistry affect factor scores among men participants, these results suggest that men receiving the Traditional Prompt versus the Identity-Safe Prompt may have identified less with chemistry while also experiencing greater negative feelings surrounding their chemistry test-taking abilities. The Traditional Prompt may, thus, also negatively impact factors related to men's domain identification. However, the use of identity-safe cues appears to reduce this negative impact among men in addition to reducing stigma consciousness among women, providing additional support for their use in tasks relating to NMR communication.
RQ2: To what degree is gender stigma consciousness associated with women's performance or confidence when communicating about NMR spectra in postsecondary organic chemistry courses?
Women participants exhibited a range of NMR-LRC total performance and confidence scores, the distribution of which is summarized in Fig. 2, 3 and Table 8. A perfectly normal distribution has a skewness of 0 and a kurtosis of 3 (Mishra et al., 2019). Skewness and kurtosis values for the total performance scores and total confidence scores approached these values (see Table 8), indicating the data have approximately normal distributions (Mishra et al., 2019). | ||
| Fig. 2 Distribution of women's total performance scores on the NMR-LRC. | ||
 | ||
| Fig. 3 Distribution of women's total confidence scores on the NMR-LRC. | ||
| Variable | Mean | Median | SD | Skewness | Kurtosis | Minimum score | Maximum score |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NMR-LRC total performance score | 5.2 | 5.0 | 1.4 | 0.05 | 2.91 | 2.0 | 9.0 |
| NMR-LRC total confidence score | 59.2 | 61.0 | 16.4 | −0.69 | 3.96 | 0.0 | 97.5 |
Results from the evaluation of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients indicate that gender stigma consciousness factor scores are directly associated with NMR-LRC total confidence scores among women receiving the Identity-Safe Prompt (see Table 9). The size of this correlation coefficient (ρ = 0.215) was substantive, indicating the effect is not negligible. There was no evidence of an association between gender stigma consciousness factor scores and NMR-LRC total confidence scores among women receiving the Traditional Prompt (see Table 9). There was also no evidence of associations between gender stigma consciousness factor scores and NMR-LRC total performance scores regardless of prompt type (see Table 9).
| Variables | Overall | Traditional prompt | Identity-safe prompt | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Correlation coefficient (ρ) | p-Value | Correlation coefficient (ρ) | p-Value | Correlation coefficient (ρ) | p-Value | |
| Initial significance was set at α = 0.05, and the Bonferroni adjusted significance level was set at 0.008.a Corresponds to significance at p < 0.008. | ||||||
| Gender stigma consciousness factor score – NMR-LRC total performance score | 0.030 | 0.573 | 0.039 | 0.607 | 0.007 | 0.930 |
| Gender stigma consciousness factor score – NMR-LRC total confidence score | 0.133 | 0.012 | 0.063 | 0.411 | 0.215 | 0.004a |
Results from the evaluation of Spearman's rank correlation coefficients indicate that among women receiving the Identity-Safe Prompt, the more acutely aware one is of stigma attached to their gender, the more confident they are in their responses to NMR-LRC items. These results suggest that, in an identity-safe environment, women's gender stigma consciousness is associated with their confidence when communicating about NMR spectra. While this association does not provide evidence of causation, it is possible that receiving the Identity-Safe Prompt allows women with greater awareness of stigma attached to their gender to feel more confident in their responses, as they believe their responses will contribute to researchers’ understanding of the different ways that people (including women) communicate. This finding aligns with the observation by Miller-Friedmann et al. (2018) that women working in niche subfields of chemistry are able to flourish, possibly because they have a space free from gender-based pressures in which they can be themselves while doing something they enjoy. Thus, creating an identity-safe environment may not only function to minimize women's gender stigma consciousness when communicating about NMR spectra, but also increase confidence among women who still experience awareness of stigma when engaging in this practice. However, additional research is needed to understand the underlying cause of this association.
Other research studies have found that experiencing social identity threat when completing a task results in a decrease in associated performance; however, we found no evidence of an association between women's gender stigma consciousness (i.e., one measure of their vulnerability to social identity threat) and their performance on the NMR-LRC across prompt types. This lack of evidence for an association is somewhat encouraging, as it suggests that while women experience gender stigma consciousness when communicating about NMR spectra in postsecondary organic chemistry courses, awareness of this stigma may not impact their performance. Research suggests that one's performance may not be affected when experiencing social identity threat if the task is not difficult or if the individual does not strongly identify with the domain of interest (e.g., chemistry). Thus, women participants may not have found the NMR-LRC exceedingly difficult, as suggested by their score distribution (see Table 8). Given the introductory level of this course, it is also possible that the majority of women participants do not strongly identify with chemistry. Yet, regardless of the lack of evidence, experiencing acute awareness of stigma over time still undermines individuals’ sense of belonging and ultimately decreases their participation in associated domains (Froehlich et al., 2023). Therefore, lack of evidence for an association between gender stigma consciousness and performance scores does not detract from the need to redefine norms surrounding this practice.
Limitations and implications for research
This study relies on a proximal measure of identity negotiation processes given that they occur incrementally and often unconsciously (Chatman et al., 2005; Swann et al., 2009). This means that greater gender stigma consciousness experienced by women on the traditional versus identity-safe NMR communication task only provides initial, preliminary evidence that this disciplinary practice may prompt women's negotiation of self. It is further possible that this practice may prompt identity negotiation processes for some, but not all, women. Gender is often used as a proxy for systemic inequities faced by cisgender women in STEM, though while gender is correlated with experiencing such barriers, not all women necessarily encounter them. Future research that targets these incremental processes via longitudinal qualitative methods will thus be needed to fully address to what extent this practice results in identity negotiation, among whom, and how. This research objective is part of the study team's broader ongoing work.Results suggest that women may have also experienced greater ethnicity stigma consciousness on the traditional task versus the identity-safe task, meaning that women with ethnically minoritized identities may be especially susceptible to experiencing social identity threat when communicating about NMR spectra in contexts without identity-safe cues. However, due to the quantitative and preliminary nature of this investigation, the lived experiences of women with intersectional identities were not explored. It is, thus, unclear from this investigation how these identities may interact and affect identity negotiation in the context of this disciplinary practice. Additional qualitative research will be needed to explore this intersectionality, an objective which is part of the study team's ongoing work. Complementary qualitative approaches would also be needed to understand the diverse experiences associated with gender identity. For instance, the extent to which findings apply to both cisgender and transgender women is unclear. This limitation is inherent when complex social constructs (e.g., gender stigma consciousness) are operationalized within exclusively quantitative frameworks. Nonetheless, the study team still views the quantitative findings herein as important evidence that communicating about NMR spectra is a disciplinary practice that may prompt women's negotiation of self; this evidence underscores the need for future investigations focused on other chemistry-specific practices and how their associated norms exclude certain social groups, and it serves as a foundation through which this work can be accomplished.
Further, the study occurred at a single, Predominantly White Institution with student population demographics that approached the minimum requirement for federal designation as a Hispanic-Serving Institution (i.e., 25.0%) at the time of data collection. The extent to which some findings, in particular the correlation between ethnicity stigma consciousness and gender stigma consciousness, may transfer to other instructional contexts is thus unclear. For instance, it is possible that this correlation is not observable at Predominately White Institutions where most students identify as non-Hispanic. The extent to which these findings transfer to other instructional contexts with different institutional demographics is also part of ongoing work by the study team.
With regard to the NMR communication task used for the investigation herein, it entailed written communication in an online setting rather than verbal communication in an in-person setting. This written design helped focus the investigation on women's gender stigma consciousness associated with communicating about NMR spectra in particular, as it served to minimize the effects of other contextual factors which may impact their stigma consciousness (e.g., being numerically underrepresented in a setting). However, NMR spectra are widely used tools for social discourse, where research documents their use in in-person contexts (Kozma and Russell, 2005). Additional research will, therefore, be needed to understand how in-person, verbal communication about NMR spectra in traditional settings versus identity-safe settings differentially impacts individuals’ gender stigma consciousness. The authors hypothesize that women's gender stigma consciousness could be exacerbated in traditional, in-person settings, as women may face additional threating situational cues that often accompany intergroup interactions (Pinel, 2002).
In addition, the investigation took place within an introductory-level instructional context rather than a professional context. There are inherent benefits to investigating this phenomenon at the introductory level. Namely, the likelihood that women have already undergone extensive identity negotiation processes to attain identity fit surrounding this practice in this early stage of their chemistry education is low, and if identity fit has already been realized, it would be difficult to determine if this practice prompts such negotiation. Further, evidence of women's increased gender stigma consciousness when participating in this practice at the introductory-level highlights how early identity negotiation processes may begin. However, additional research will be needed to understand how these findings transfer to professional settings.
Moreover, it is possible that women experience heightened vulnerability to social identity threat for other chemistry practices. Additional research will be needed to establish the extent to which such vulnerability extends to other practices. The SIAS-Chem, combined with traditional versus identity-safe prompts, serves as a promising tool for future identification of such practices. The SIAS-Chem could also be used to understand the general impact of traditional versus identity-safe chemistry learning environments on minoritized students’ susceptibility to social identity threat. However, additional evaluation of the SIAS-Chem in other instructional and institutional contexts is needed. Additional evaluation and potential refinement of the Gender Identification factor, which demonstrated questionable evidence of unidimensionality, is also needed. This evaluation is part of the study team's broader ongoing work, and readers interested in contributing to this evaluation are invited to contact the corresponding author.
Implications for chemistry educators
While gender stigma consciousness is a proxy measure of identity negotiation processes, and longitudinal qualitative research will be needed to more fully investigate this phenomenon, findings have a number of implications for chemistry educators who wish to create more equitable, gender-inclusive learning environments. Foremost, findings imply that the design of assessments involving communication about NMR spectroscopy would benefit from the inclusion of strategies for creating identity-safe learning environments (Walton et al., 2012). The investigation herein incorporated three such strategies into an instructional prompt, with results suggesting they were effective at reducing gender stigma conscious (and possibly, ethnicity stigma consciousness) in this context: (1) valuing diverse perspectives and approaches (Purdie-Vaughns et al., 2008), (2) affirming students’ sense of belonging (Walton and Cohen, 2007, 2011), and (3) creating opportunities for students to affirm their individuality (Ambady et al., 2004).Chemistry educators may also incorporate these strategies into their instruction on NMR spectroscopy. For example, they could begin by emphasizing that communicating about NMR spectra may take on valuable, diverse forms depending on an individual's background when initially introducing common terminology in the NMR lexicon (Connor et al., 2021). More transformational instructional practices could then involve actively encouraging and creating space for diverse forms of discourse during pre-laboratory and laboratory activities in which students engage with language surrounding spectroscopy (Mundy et al., 2024), both of which would serve to cultivate more inclusive disciplinary norms (albeit, in the classroom). Such practices will be important for achieving equitable learning outcomes in this topic. To avoid unconscious biases that persist within the discipline (Zhang, 2024), chemistry educators should also remain cognizant of the possibility that communicating about NMR spectra may take on different forms as they evaluate students’ competence surrounding this practice.
Further, language has been identified as a key barrier to learning spectroscopy (Connor et al., 2021; Fantone et al., 2024; Mundy et al., 2024), especially among Eng+ individuals (Mundy et al., 2024). Results of the study herein provide preliminary evidence that this barrier may also disproportionately impact women (and in particular, ethnically minoritized women), as they may need to simultaneously develop competence in this practice while also negotiating their sense of self to successfully perform this competence to their instructors. This possibility underscores the importance of creating identity-safe learning environments for this practice, as they will be needed to equitably support associated learning.
Conclusions
Results from this investigation indicate that communicating about NMR spectra on a traditional task versus a task with identity-safe cues is associated with greater gender stigma consciousness for women in postsecondary organic chemistry courses, suggesting that norms surrounding this disciplinary practice may be exclusionary of women and prompt their negotiation of self as early as the introductory-level of their postsecondary chemistry education. Moreover, these findings also suggests that the incorporation of identity-safe cues surrounding this practice functions to reduce women's gender stigma consciousness and, in turn, make this practice more inclusive. This possibility is further supported by the observed association between gender stigma consciousness factor scores and NMR-LRC total confidence scores among women who completed the task with multiple identity-safe cues. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating strategies for creating identity-safe learning environments into instruction on this practice, as well as the need for additional research focused on disciplinary practices and how their associated norms may function to exclude certain social groups.Further, measures of gender stigma consciousness were obtained using a version of the Social Identities and Attitudes Scale modified for use in chemistry learning environments (i.e., the SIAS-Chem), with evidence of validity, reliability, and measurement invariance across prompt groups providing initial, preliminary support for its use in identifying disciplinary practices that are exclusionary of women. However, the SIAS-Chem continues to undergo evaluation to support its broad use, both with regard to its Gender Identification factor and functionality in other instructional and institutional contexts.
Author contributions
MC: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, data curation, writing – original draft, writing – review and editing, visualization, supervision, project administration. AP: formal analysis. AB: formal analysis.Data availability
Due to participant confidentiality, data from this investigation are not publicly available.Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts to declare.Appendices
Appendix 1
Traditional prompt. The following questions will be used to evaluate your ability to communicate about 1H NMR spectra. Please do your best to completely and accurately respond to each question.
Terms and concepts in some questions may not have been covered in your course, and so they may be unfamiliar to you. It's very important that we obtain natural responses from each student, so please respond without using outside information (classmates, textbook, internet, etc.). It's OK if you don't know the answer to something. All answers will be de-identified prior to analysis. Credit for participating will not rely on “correct” answers but rather an honest effort.
Identity-safe prompt. The following questions will be used to understand the different ways that people communicate about 1H NMR spectra. These questions will not be used to evaluate your ability, but instead help researchers understand different styles of communication. Please do your best to completely and accurately respond to each question.
Terms and concepts in some questions may not have been covered in your course, and so they may be unfamiliar to you. It's very important that we obtain natural responses from each student, so please respond without using outside information (classmates, textbook, internet, etc.). It's OK if you don't know the answer to something. All answers will be de-identified prior to analysis. Credit for participating will not rely on “correct” answers but rather an honest effort.
Free-response item. Chemists conducted a series of reactions to synthesize isochroman. They then analyzed their final product spectroscopically to determine if the synthesis was successful. Use the 1H NMR spectrum of the final product (provided below) to explain whether the synthesis of isochroman was successful or unsuccessful.
Describe in full detail what specific features of the 1H NMR spectrum provide evidence that the synthesis of isochroman was successful or unsuccessful.
Explain in full detail why you think these specific features provide evidence that the synthesis of isochroman was successful or unsuccessful.
Example item from the 10-item NMR-LRC (Connor et al., 2021).
| Strongly disagree | Strongly agree | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | |
| My gender influences how I feel about myself | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Chemistry is important to me | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My gender contributes to my self confidence | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My gender influences how teachers interpret my behavior | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| I value my ethnic background | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Most people judge me on the basis of my ethnicity | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My gender is central in defining who I am | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Being good at chemistry will be useful to me in my future career | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Most people judge me on the basis of my gender | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My identity is strongly tied to my gender | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| I feel a strong attachment to my ethnicity | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My gender affects how people treat me | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My ethnicity is an important reflection of who I am | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| I am connected to my ethnic heritage | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My gender affects how people act towards me | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My chemistry abilities are important to my academic success | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My ethnicity affects how my peers interact with me | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Doing well in chemistry matters to me | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Members of the opposite sex interpret my behavior based on my gender | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My ethnicity influences how teachers interact with me | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| I value chemistry | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| My ethnicity affects how I interact with people of other ethnicities | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Doing well in chemistry is critical to my future success | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| People from other ethnic groups interpret my behavior based on my ethnicity | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| When doing difficult chemistry problems on a test I… | |||||||
| Experience doubt about my chemistry abilities | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Feel like I’m letting myself down | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Start to lose confidence in my abilities | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Feel like a failure | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Feel hopeless | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
| Feel like giving up | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ | ○ |
Appendix 2
| Factor | Gender stigma consciousness | Ethnicity stigma consciousness | Gender identification | Ethnic identification | Chemistry identification |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness | 0.637 (p < 0.001) | — | — | — | — |
| Gender Identification | 0.714 (p < 0.001) | 0.435 (p < 0.001) | — | — | — |
| Ethnic Identification | 0.192 (p < 0.001) | 0.538 (p < 0.001) | 0.250 (p < 0.001) | — | — |
| Chemistry Identification | 0.225 (p < 0.001) | 0.140 (p = 0.004) | 0.153 (p = 0.003) | 0.092 (p = 0.058) | — |
| Negative Chemistry Affect | 0.197 (p < 0.001) | 0.160 (p = 0.001) | 0.137 (p = 0.007) | 0.160 (p = 0.001) | −0.074 (p = 0.144) |
| Factor | χ 2 (df) | p-Value | CFI | TLI | RMSEA [90% confidence interval] | SRMR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gender Stigma Consciousness | 6.52 (4) | 0.164 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.03 [0.01–0.07] | 0.01 |
| Ethnicity Stigma Consciousness | 30.13 (5) | <0.001 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 0.10 [0.07–0.12] | 0.02 |
| Gender Identification | 49.29 (2) | <0.001 | 0.94 | 0.82 | 0.21 [0.17–0.25] | 0.04 |
| Ethnic Identification | 14.46 (2) | 0.001 | 0.95 | 0.98 | 0.11 [0.07–0.15] | 0.01 |
| Chemistry Identification | 33.04 (8) | <0.001 | 0.98 | 0.96 | 0.08 [0.06–0.10] | 0.03 |
| Negative Chemistry Affect | 91.86 (7) | <0.001 | 0.95 | 0.89 | 0.15 [0.13–0.17] | 0.03 |
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the students that participated in this study and the instructors who facilitated data collection in their courses.References
- Abrams D. and Hogg M. A., (1999), Social identity and social cognition, Blackwell.
- Adamuti-Trache M. and Andres L., (2008), Embarking on and Persisting in Scientific Fields of Study: cultural capital, gender, and curriculum along the science pipeline, Int. J. Sci. Educ., 30(12), 1557–1584 DOI:10.1080/09500690701324208.
- Ambady N., Paik S. K., Steele J., Owen-Smith A. and Mitchell J. P., (2004), Deflecting negative self-relevant stereotype activation: the effects of individuation, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 40(3), 401–408 DOI:10.1016/J.JESP.2003.08.003.
- Archer L., Dewitt J., Osborne J., Dillon J., Willis B. and Wong B., (2010), “Doing” science versus “being” a scientist: examining 10/11-year-old schoolchildren's constructions of science through the lens of identity, Sci. Educ., 94(4), 617–639 DOI:10.1002/SCE.20399.
- Archer L., Dewitt J., Osborne J., Dillon J., Willis B. and Wong B., (2012), ‘Balancing acts’: elementary school girls’ negotiations of femininity, achievement, and science, Sci Educ, 96(6), 967–989 DOI:10.1002/SCE.21031.
- Areni C. S. and Sparks J. R., (2005), Language power and persuasion, Psychol. Mark, 22(6), 507–525 DOI:10.1002/MAR.20071.
- Avraamidou L., (2020), “I am a young immigrant woman doing physics and on top of that I am Muslim”: identities, intersections, and negotiations, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 57(3), 311–341 DOI:10.1002/tea.21593.
- Baker D. and Leary R., (1995), Letting girls speak out about science, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 32(1), 3–27 DOI:10.1002/TEA.3660320104.
- Barton A. C. and Tan E., (2009), Funds of knowledge and discourses and hybrid space, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 46(1), 50–73 DOI:10.1002/TEA.20269.
- Bauer K. W. and Bennett J. S., (2003), Alumni Perceptions Used to Assess Undergraduate Research Experience, J. Higher Educ., 74(2), 210–230 DOI:10.1080/00221546.2003.11777197.
- Breakwell G. M., Vignoles V. L. and Robertson T., (2003), Stereotypes and crossed-category evaluations: the case of gender and science education, Br. J. Psychol., 94(4), 437–455 DOI:10.1348/000712603322503024.
- Brewer M. B., (1991), The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 17(5), 475–482.
- Brown R. P. and Pinel E. C., (2003), Stigma on my mind: individual differences in the experience of stereotype threat, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 39(6), 626–633 DOI:10.1016/S0022-1031(03)00039-8.
- Buck G. A., Plano Clark V. L., Leslie-Pelecky D., Lu Y. and Cerda-Lizarraga P., (2008), Examining the cognitive processes used by adolescent girls and women scientists in identifying science role models: a feminist approach, Sci. Educ., 92(4), 688–707 DOI:10.1002/SCE.20257.
- Butler J., (2011), Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity, Routledge.
- Calabrese Barton A., Kang H., Tan E., O’Neill T. B., Bautista-Guerra J. and Brecklin C., (2013), Crafting a Future in Science: Tracing Middle School Girls’ Identity Work Over Time and Space, Am. Educ. Res. J., 50(1), 37–75 DOI:10.3102/0002831212458142/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/10.3102_0002831212458142-FIG1.JPEG.
- Calás M. B., Ou H. and Smircich L., (2013), “Woman” on the move: mobile subjectivities after intersectionality, Equality, Diversity Inclusion: Int. J., 32(8), 708–731 DOI:10.1108/EDI-05-2012-0037.
- Caleon I. S. and Subramaniam R., (2008), Attitudes towards science of intellectually gifted and mainstream upper primary students in Singapore, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 45(8), 940–954 DOI:10.1002/TEA.20250.
- Carli L. L., Alawa L., Lee Y. A., Zhao B. and Kim E., (2016), Stereotypes About Gender and Science: Women ≠ Scientists, Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(2), 244–260 DOI:10.1177/0361684315622645.
- Carlone H. B., (2003), (Re)producing Good Science Students: Girls’ Participation in High School Physics, J. Women Minor Sci. Eng., 9(1), 17–34 DOI:10.1615/JWOMENMINORSCIENENG.V9.I1.20.
- Carlone H. B. and Johnson A., (2007), Understanding the science experiences of successful women of color: science identity as an analytic lens, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 44(8), 1187–1218 DOI:10.1002/TEA.20237.
- Casad B. J., Petzel Z. W. and Ingalls E. A., (2019), A Model of Threatening Academic Environments Predicts Women STEM Majors’ Self-Esteem and Engagement in STEM, Sex Roles, 80(7–8), 469–488 DOI:10.1007/s11199-018-0942-4.
- Chatman C., Eccles J. and Malanchuk O., (2005), Identity Negotiation in Everyday Settings, Navigating the Future: Social Identity, Coping, and Life Tasks, in Downey G., Eccles J. and Chatman C. (ed.), Russell Sage Foundation.
- Chen F. F., (2007), Sensitivity of Goodness of Fit Indexes to Lack of Measurement Invariance, Struct. Equ. Modeling, 14(3), 464–504 DOI:10.1080/10705510701301834.
- Cheryan S., Plaut V. C., Davies P. G. and Steele C. M., (2009), Ambient Belonging: How Stereotypical Cues Impact Gender Participation in Computer Science, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 97(6), 1045–1060 DOI:10.1037/A0016239.
- Cohen J., (1992), A power primer, Quant. Methods Psychol., 112(1), 155–159 DOI:10.1016/j.jorganchem.2011.01.025.
- Cohen L., Manion L. and Morrison K., (2011), Research methods in education, 7th edn, Routledge.
- Connor M. C., Finkenstaedt-Quinn S. A. and Shultz G. V., (2019), Constraints on organic chemistry students’ reasoning during IR and 1H NMR spectral interpretation, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 20(3), 522–541 10.1039/c9rp00033j.
- Connor M. C., Glass B. H., Finkenstaedt-Quinn S. A. and Shultz G. V., (2021), Developing Expertise in 1H NMR Spectral Interpretation, J. Org. Chem., 86(2), 1385–1395 DOI:10.1021/acs.joc.0c01398.
- Connor M. C., Glass B. H. and Shultz G. V., (2021), Development of the NMR Lexical Representational Competence (NMR-LRC) instrument as a formative assessment of lexical ability in 1H NMR spectroscopy, J. Chem. Educ., (9), 2786–2798 DOI:10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00332.
- Connor M. C. and Raker J. R., (2022), Instrumentation Use in Postsecondary Instructional Chemistry Laboratory Courses: Results from a National Survey, J. Chem. Educ., 99(9), 3143–3154 DOI:10.1021/acs.jchemed.2c00415.
- Conway-Klaassen J. M., (2010), Stereotype threat's effect on women's achievement in chemistry: the interaction of achievement goal orientation for women in science majors, UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones, 858 DOI:10.34917/2202838.
- Crenshaw K., (1989), Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics, University of Chicago Legal Forum, 8, pp. 139–167 DOI:10.4324/9781315051536-2/DEMARGINALIZING-INTERSECTION-RACE-SEX-KIMBERLE-CRENSHAW.
- Crocker J. and Major B., (1989), Social Stigma and Self-Esteem: The Self-Protective Properties of Stigma, Psychol. Rev., 96(4), 608–630 DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.96.4.608.
- Cronbach L. J., (1951), Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests, Psychometrika, 16(3), 297–334.
- Cross W. and Strauss L., (1998), The Everyday Functions of African American Identity, Prejudice: The Target's Perspective, in Swim J. K. and Stangor C. (ed.), Academic Press.
- Danielsson A. T., (2012), Exploring woman university physics students ‘doing gender’ and ‘doing physics’, Gend. Educ., 24(1), 25–39 DOI:10.1080/09540253.2011.565040.
- Davies P. G., Steele C. M. and Spencer S. J., (2005), Clearing the air: identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women's leadership aspirations, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 88(2), 276–287 DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.88.2.276.
- Deaux K. and Ethier K. A., (1998), Negotiating Social Identity, Prejudice: The Target's Perspective, in Swim J. K. and Stangor C. (ed.), Academic Press.
- Deemer E. D., Thoman D. B., Chase J. P. and Smith J. L., (2014), Feeling the Threat: Stereotype Threat as a Contextual Barrier to Women's Science Career Choice Intentions, J. Career Dev., 41(2), 141–158 DOI:10.1177/0894845313483003.
- De Welde K. and Laursen S., (2011), The Glass Obstacle Course: Informal and Formal Barriers For Women PhD Students in STEM Fields, Int. J. Gend. Sci. Technol., 3(3), 571–595.
- Eckert P. and Mcconnell-Ginet S., (2013), Language and Gender, Cambridge University Press DOI:10.1002/9780470754856.ch3.
- Eisenhart M. and Finkel E., (1998), Women's science: Learning and succeeding from the margins, University of Chicago Press.
- Erikson E., (1968), Identity: Youth and Crisis, Faber and Faber.
- Erikson E., (1980), Identity and the Life Cycle, Norton.
- Fadigan K. A. and Hammrich P. L., (2004), A longitudinal study of the educational and career trajectories of female participants of an urban informal science education program, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 41(8), 835–860 DOI:10.1002/TEA.20026.
- Fantone R. C., Geragosian E., Connor M. and Shultz G. V., (2024), Exploring post-secondary chemistry instructors’ knowledge for teaching 1H NMR spectroscopy, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 25, 976–995 10.1039/D4RP00003J.
- Fordham S., (1988), Racelessness as a factor in black students’ school success: pragmatic strategy of pyrrhic victory? Harv. Educ. Rev., 58(1), 54–84.
- Froehlich L., Brokjøb L. G., Nikitin J. and Martiny S. E., (2023), Integration or isolation: social identity threat relates to immigrant students’ sense of belonging and social approach motivation in the academic context, J. Soc. Issues, 79(1), 264–290 DOI:10.1111/JOSI.12548.
- Gonsalves A. J., (2014), “Physics and the girly girl-there is a contradiction somewhere”: doctoral students’ positioning around discourses of gender and competence in physics, Cult. Stud. Sci. Educ., 9(2), 503–521 DOI:10.1007/s11422-012-9447-6.
- Good C., Aronson J. and Harder J. A., (2008), Problems in the pipeline: stereotype threat and women's achievement in high-level math courses, J. Appl. Dev. Psychol., 29(1), 17–28 DOI:10.1016/J.APPDEV.2007.10.004.
- Greene J., Stockard J., Lewis P. and Richmond G., (2010), Is the Academic Climate Chilly? The Views of Women Academic Chemists, J. Chem. Educ., 87(4), 381–385 DOI:10.1021/ED800042Z.
- Grotevant H. D., (1987), Toward a process model of identity formation, J. Adolesc. Res., 2(3), 203–222.
- Grunert M. L. and Bodner G. M., (2011), Underneath it all: gender role identification and women chemists’ career choices, Sci. Educ. Int., 22(4), 292–301.
- Guttman L. A., (1945), Basis for Analyzing Test-Retest Reliability, Psychometrika, 10(4), 255–282.
- Hall W., Schmader T., Aday A., Inness M. and Croft E., (2018), Climate Control: The Relationship Between Social Identity Threat and Cues to an Identity-Safe Culture, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 115(3), 446–467 DOI:10.1037/pspi0000137.supp.
- Haraway D., (1988), Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective, Feminist Studies, 14(3), 575–599 DOI:10.2307/3178066.
- Harter S., (1990), Self and Identity Development, At the Threshold: The Developing Adolescent, in Feldman S. S. and Elliot G. R. (ed.), Harvard University Press.
- Hathaway R. S., Nagda B. A. and Gregerman S. R., (2002), The Relationship of Undergraduate Research Participation to Graduate and Professional Education Pursuit: An Empirical Study, J. Coll. Stud. Dev., 43(5), 614–631.
- Hazari Z., Sonnert G., Sadler P. M. and Shanahan M. C., (2010), Connecting high school physics experiences, outcome expectations, physics identity, and physics career choice: a gender study, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 47(8), 978–1003 DOI:10.1002/TEA.20363.
- Hoffman R. M., (2006), Gender Self-Definition and Gender Self-Acceptance in Women: Intersections With Feminist, Womanist, and Ethnic Identities, J. Counseling Dev., 84(3), 358–372 DOI:10.1002/J.1556-6678.2006.TB00415.X.
- Hosbein K. N. and Barbera J., (2020a), Alignment of theoretically grounded constructs for the measurement of science and chemistry identity, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 21(1), 371–386 10.1039/C9RP00193J.
- Hosbein K. N. and Barbera J., (2020b), Development and evaluation of novel science and chemistry identity measures, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 21(3), 852–877 10.1039/C9RP00223E.
- Howe M. E., Kim M. M. and Pazicni S., (2022a), Graduate Student Women's Perceptions of Faculty Careers: The Critical Role of Departmental Values and Support in Career Choice, JACS Au, 2(6), 1443–1456 DOI:10.1021/JACSAU.2C00175/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/AU2C00175_0009.JPEG.
- Howe M. E., Schaffer L. V., Styles M. J. and Pazicni S., (2022b), Exploring Factors Affecting Interest in Chemistry Faculty Careers among Graduate Student Women: Results from a Local Pilot Study, J. Chem. Educ., 99(1), 92–103 DOI:10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00502.
- Hu L. T. and Bentler P. M., (1999), Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives, Struct. Equ. Modeling, 6(1), 1–55 DOI:10.1080/10705519909540118.
- Johnson A., Brown J., Carlone H. and Cuevas A. K., (2011), Authoring identity amidst the treacherous terrain of science: a multiracial feminist examination of the journeys of three women of color in science, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 48(4), 339–366 DOI:10.1002/TEA.20411.
- Kayumova S. and Dou R., (2022), Equity and justice in science education: toward a pluriverse of multiple identities and onto-epistemologies, Sci. Educ., 106(5), 1097–1117 DOI:10.1002/sce.21750.
- Kleiber D. A., (1999), Leisure Experiences and Human Development: A Dialectical Interpretation, Basic Books.
- Komperda R., Pentecost T. C. and Barbera J., (2018), Moving beyond Alpha: A Primer on Alternative Sources of Single-Administration Reliability Evidence for Quantitative Chemistry Education Research, J. Chem. Educ., 95(9), 1477–1491 DOI:10.1021/acs.jchemed.8b00220.
- Kozma R. and Russell J., (2005), Modelling Students Becoming Chemists: Developing Representational Competence, in Visualization in Science Education, Gilbert J. K. (ed.), Springer, pp. 121–146 DOI:10.1007/1-4020-3613-2_4.
- Krogh L. B. and Andersen H. M., (2013), “Actually, I May be Clever Enough to do it”. Using Identity as a Lens to Investigate Students’ Trajectories Towards Science and University, Res. Sci. Educ., 43(2), 711–731 DOI:10.1007/S11165-012-9285-2/METRICS.
- Lakoff R., (1973), Language and Woman's Place, Language Soc., 2(1), 45–80.
- Lave J. and Wenger E., (1991), Situated Learning: Legitimate peripheral participation, Cambridge University Press.
- Li C. H., (2016), Confirmatory factor analysis with ordinal data: comparing robust maximum likelihood and diagonally weighted least squares, Behav. Res. Methods, 48(3), 936–949 DOI:10.3758/s13428-015-0619-7.
- Li Y. and Burkholder E., (2024), Investigating students’ self-identified and reflected appraisal of femininity, masculinity, and androgyny in introductory physics courses, Phys. Rev. Phys. Educ. Res., 20(1), 010110 DOI:10.1103/PHYSREVPHYSEDUCRES.20.010110/FIGURES/5/MEDIUM.
- Luhtanen R. and Crocker J., (1992), A collective self-esteem scale: self-evaluation of one's social identity, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 18(3), 302–318.
- Major B. and O’Brien L. T., (2005), The social psychology of stigma, Annu. Rev. Psychol., 56, 393–421.
- Marsh H. W., Hau K. T. and Wen Z., (2004), In search of golden rules: comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler's (1999) findings, Struct. Equation Modeling, 11(3), 320–341 DOI:10.1207/S15328007SEM1103_2.
- McDonald R. P., (1999), Test Theory: A Unified Treatment, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- Miller R. A., Vaccaro A., Kimball E. W. and Forester R., (2021), “It's Dude Culture”: Students With Minoritized Identities of Sexuality and/or Gender Navigating STEM Majors, J. Divers High. Educ., 14(3), 340–352 DOI:10.1037/dhe0000171.
- Miller-Friedmann J., Childs A. and Hillier J., (2018), Approaching gender equity in academic chemistry: lessons learned from successful female chemists in the UK, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 19(1), 24–41 10.1039/C6RP00252H.
- Mishra P., Pandey C. M., Singh U., Gupta A., Sahu C. and Keshri A., (2019), Descriptive statistics and normality tests for statistical data, Ann. Card. Anaesth., 22(1), 67–72 DOI:10.4103/ACA.ACA_157_18.
- Mulac A., Bradac J. J. and Gibbons P., (2001), Empirical support for the gender-as-culture hypothesis: an intercultural analysis of male/female language differences, Hum. Commun. Res., 27(1), 121–152 DOI:10.1093/hcr/27.1.121.
- Mundy C. E., Potgieter M. and Seery M. K., (2024), Shedding light on language difficulties in introductory spectroscopy, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 25, 786–798 10.1039/D3RP00347G.
- Murphy M. C., Steele C. M. and Gross J. J., (2007), Signaling Threat: How Situational Cues Affect Women in Math, Science, and Engineering Settings, Psychol. Sci., 18(10), 879–885 DOI:10.1111/J.1467-9280.2007.01995.X.
- Nagda B. A., Gregerman S. R., Jonides J., Von Hippel W. and Lerner J. S., (1998), Undergraduate Student-Faculty Research Partnerships Affect Student Retention, Rev. High. Ed., 22, 55–72 DOI:10.1353/rhe.1998.0016.
- National Center for Education Statistics, (2022), Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System.
- National Science Foundation, (2021), Table 33. U.S. residing doctoral scientists and engineers, by occupation and sex: 2021, Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR).
- Phinney J. S., (1992), The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A New Scale for Use with Diverse Groups, J. Adolesc. Res., 7(2), 156–176 DOI:10.1177/074355489272003.
- Picho K. and Brown S. W., (2011), Can Stereotype Threat Be Measured? A Validation of the Social Identities and Attitudes Scale (SIAS), J. Adv. Acad., 22(3), 374–411 DOI:10.1177/1932202X1102200302.
- Pietri E. S., Johnson I. R. and Ozgumus E., (2018), One size may not fit all: exploring how the intersection of race and gender and stigma consciousness predict effective identity-safe cues for Black women, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 74, 291–306 DOI:10.1016/J.JESP.2017.06.021.
- Pinel E. C., (1999), Stigma consciousness: the psychological legacy of social stereotypes, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 76(1), 114–128 DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.114.
- Pinel E. C., (2002), Stigma consciousness in intergroup contexts: the power of conviction, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 38(2), 178–185 DOI:10.1006/JESP.2001.1498.
- Pinel E. C., (2004), You’re Just Saying That Because I’m a Woman: Stigma Consciousness and Attributions to Discrimination, Self Identity, 3(1), 39–51 DOI:10.1080/13576500342000031.
- Pruitt D. G., (2001), Negotiation Theory and the Development of Identity, Int. Negotiation, 6(2), 269–279 DOI:10.1163/15718060120849071.
- Purdie-Vaughns V., Steele C. M., Davies P. G., Ditlmann R. and Crosby J. R., (2008), Social Identity Contingencies: How Diversity Cues Signal Threat or Safety for African Americans in Mainstream Institutions, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 94(4), 615–630 DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.615.
- Putnick D. L. and Bornstein M. H., (2016), Measurement invariance conventions and reporting: the state of the art and future directions for psychological research, Dev. Rev., 41, 71–90 DOI:10.1016/J.DR.2016.06.004.
- Revelle W., (2018), psych: Procedures for Personality and Psychological Research.
- Rocabado G. A., Komperda R., Lewis J. E. and Barbera J., (2020), Addressing diversity and inclusion through group comparisons: a primer on measurement invariance testing, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 21(3), 969–988 10.1039/d0rp00025f.
- Rosseel Y., (2012), lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling.
- Schmader T., (2002), Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women's math performance, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 38(2), 194–201 DOI:10.1006/JESP.2001.1500.
- Schober P. and Schwarte L. A., (2018), Correlation coefficients: appropriate use and interpretation, Anesth. Analg., 126(5), 1763–1768 DOI:10.1213/ANE.0000000000002864.
- Schummer J., (2002), The Impact of Instrumentation on Chemical Species Identity: From Chemical Substances to Molecular Species, From Classical to Modern Chemistry: The Instrumental Revolution, in Morris P. (ed.), The Royal Society of Chemistry, pp. 188–211.
- Seymour E. and Hewitt N., (1997), Talking about leaving, Westview Press.
- Shapiro J. R. and Williams A. M., (2012), The Role of Stereotype Threats in Undermining Girls’ and Women's Performance and Interest in STEM Fields, Sex Roles, 66(3–4), 175–183 DOI:10.1007/S11199-011-0051-0/METRICS.
- Sheskin D. J., (2011), Handbook of parametric and nonparametric statistical procedures, 5th edn, CRC Press.
- Smith L. V. and Cokley K., (2016), Stereotype Threat Vulnerability: A Psychometric Investigation of the Social Identities and Attitudes Scale, Meas. Eval. Couns. Dev., 49(2), 145–162 DOI:10.1177/0748175615625752.
- Smith J. L. and White P. H., (2002), An examination of implicitly activated, explicitly activated, and nullified stereotypes on mathematical performance: It's not just a woman's issue, Sex Roles, 47(3–4), 179–191 DOI:10.1023/A:1021051223441/METRICS.
- Solorzano D., Ceja M. and Yosso T., (2000), Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students, J. Negro. Educ., 69(1/2), 60–73.
- Sotto-Santiago S., (2019), Time to Reconsider the Word Minority in Academic Medicine, J. Best Pract. Health Prof. Divers, 12(1), 72–78.
- Spencer S. J., Steele C. M. and Quinn D. M., (1999), Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance, J. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 35(1), 4–28 DOI:10.1006/JESP.1998.1373.
- softwareStataCorp, (2021), Stata Statistical Software: Release 17.
- Steele C. M., (1997), A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance, Am. Psychol., 52(6), 613–629 DOI:10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613.
- Steele C. M. and Aronson J., (1995), Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 69(5), 797–811 DOI:10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797.
- Steele C. M., Spencer S. J. and Aronson J., (2002), Contending with group image: the psychology of stereotype and social identity threat, Adv. Exp. Soc. Psychol., 34, 379–440.
- Swann W. B., Johnson R. E. and Bosson J. K., (2009), Identity negotiation at work, Res. Organ. Behav., 29, 81–109 DOI:10.1016/J.RIOB.2009.06.005.
- Thoits P. and Virshup L., (1997), Me's and we's: Forms and Functions of Social Identities, Self and Identity: Fundamental Issues, in Ashmore R. D. and Jussim L. (ed.), Oxford University Press.
- van Veelen R., Derks B. and Endedijk M. D., (2019), Double trouble: How being outnumbered and negatively stereotyped threatens career outcomes of women in STEM, Front. Psychol., 10, 422049 DOI:10.3389/FPSYG.2019.00150/BIBTEX.
- von Hippel C., Wiryakusuma C., Bowden J. and Shochet M., (2011), Stereotype Threat and Female Communication Styles, Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull., 37(10), 1312–1324 DOI:10.1177/0146167211410439.
- Wade-Jaimes K., King N. S. and Schwartz R., (2021), “You could like science and not be a science person”: Black girls’ negotiation of space and identity in science, Sci. Educ., 105(5), 855–879 DOI:10.1002/sce.21664.
- Walton G. M. and Cohen G. L., (2007), A question of belonging: race, social fit, and achievement, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., 92(1), 82–96 DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.92.1.82.
- Walton G. M. and Cohen G. L., (2011), A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students, Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451 DOI:10.1126/SCIENCE.1198364.
- Walton G. M., Cohen G. L. and Steele C., (2012), Empirically Validated Strategies to Reduce Stereotype Threat.
- Walton G. M. and Spencer S. J., (2009), Latent ability: grades and test sores systematically underestimate the intellectual ability of negatively stereotyped students, Psychol. Sci., 20(9), 1132–1139 DOI:10.1111/J.1467-9280.2009.02417.X/ASSET/IMAGES/LARGE/10.1111_J.1467-9280.2009.02417.X-FIG2.JPEG.
- Waterman A. S., (1993), Finding Something to do or Someone to Be: A Eudaimonist Perspective on Identity Formation, in Discussions on Ego Identity, in Kroger J. (ed.), Erlbaum.
- Worthington R. L. and Whittaker T. A., (2006), Scale Development Research: A Content Analysis and Recommendations for Best Practices, Couns. Psychol., 34(6), 806–838 DOI:10.1177/0011000006288127.
- Zhang Q., (2024), Navigating Barriers and Mentoring Support: The Career Goals of Women Doctoral Students in Chemistry, J. Chem. Educ., 101(2), 319–327 DOI:10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c00197.
| This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2025 |