Tomris
Coban
,
Cameron
Robertson
,
Sianne
Schwikkard
,
Richard
Singer
and
Adam
LeGresley
*
LSP&C, SEC Faculty, Kingston University, Kingston-upon-Thames, KT1 2EE, UK. E-mail: a.legresley@kingston.ac.uk
First published on 26th March 2021
The synthesis of a small number of bis(imino)anthracene derivatives is reported. They were evaluated via NMR for binding efficacy to the G-quadruplex-forming oligonucleotide sequence (TTGGGTT) and show activity against the HeLa cancer cell line. These novel ligands are compared to previously synthesised G-quadruplex ligands that target telomeres and oncogenes.
The principle motifs of a selective G-quadruplex ligand have been reported by a number of research groups.10–14 These include the requirement for planar aromatic systems and distal ionisable amine groups to interact with the phosphate backbone of the quadruplex DNA. Our intention was to couple a range of ionisable amine groups a–h to anthracene-9,10-dicarbaldehdye 1 and probe their selectivity for quadruplex over duplex DNA and to test them for cytotoxicity in HeLa cells (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Simplified scheme for imine coupling to acrylate as done for novel imine coupled anthracene derivatives. |
The reversible nature of the imine reaction facilitates the future establishment of a dynamic combinatorial library for this class of ligand, which may enable the in situ amplification of a specific (bis)imino compound from our anthracene derivative depending on the thermodynamics associated with exposure to quadruplex over duplex DNA. However, in this manuscript we report the formation and testing of a small static combinatorial library based on 1.
From Table 1, we show 3 compounds 2f, 2g and 2h were not successfully synthesised due to solubility issues.
Compound | Yield (%) | Time (h) |
---|---|---|
2a | 78 | 24 h |
2b | 60 | 24 h |
2c | 80 | 12 h |
2d | 65 | 24 h |
2e | 75 | 24 h |
2f | — | 48 h |
2g | — | 48 h |
2h | — | 48 h |
Before biochemical and in vitro analysis, the imines were tested for aqueous stability in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM). Using an internal standard (TSP), after qNMR analysis at time point 0 and 24 h later no breakdown was observed with no significant concentration changes detected in triplicate experiments.16
Compounds 2a–2e were evaluated for G-quadruplex interaction using NMR titration studies with d(TTGGGTT)4 with intercalation comparisons made against doxorubicin and nemorubicin (see ESI† S1). Previous literature with d(TTGGGTT)4 has demonstrated that G-quadruplex ligands intercalate specifically at the point between G5–T6.17 Large broadening of G5 imino proton peaks, accompanied with an up-field shift, shows this. We also see the peaks for T6 (methyl, aromatic and ribose) shifting to a lower field in accord with the up-field shift of the G5 peaks. This change is explained by the formation of a complex between the ligand and the tetrad formed at G5, which pushes the T6 unit away from the guanine π-system. This intercalation framework agreed with ESI/MS carried out which illustrated a 1:1 complex.17 We see in Fig. 2, much like previous work, that line broadening and up-field shift occurs at peaks representative of proton G6NH (10.79 ppm) significantly, alongside the significant peak broadening and down field shifting of T6H6/8 and T6CH3 peaks with the addition of proposed ligands.18
Fig. 2 1D 1HNMR spectra, referenced to TSP, showing titration of drug compounds and d(TTAGGGT)4. A slow exchange interaction, is illustrated with black arrows and fast exchanging interactions by blue arrows preliminary experiments were done to screen for activity and synthesised compounds that showed activity were run in triplicate to get an average, SD and SEM values, from these results, it was shown that all 5 ligands showed cancer activity with IC50 values ranging from (∼18–31 μM) as illustrated in Fig. 3. |
These significant changes demonstrate distinctly different bound and unbound forms through large broadening effects at a ratio of 0.5:1. There is also subtle line broadening and up-field shifting of G4NH (11.48 ppm) and G5NH (11.15 ppm) for each ligand that shows chemical exchange between two similar environments of bound and unbound ligand. Maximum line broadening occurs at a ratio of 1:1 drug to G-quadruplex and chemical shift difference changing up to 1:1 with the bound and unbound peaks being present. This matches the effect seen by nemorubicin intercalation with d(TTGGGTT)4 in previous literature suggesting a 1:1 stoichiometry. This investigation showed that the five imine coupled ligands showed G-quadruplex intercalation with 1:1 stoichiometry matching that of the current cancer drugs doxorubicin and nemorubicin (Table 2).
Compound | Difference from 1.58 ppm (ppm) T6CH3 | Difference from 7.23 ppm (ppm) T6H6/8 | Difference from 11.55 ppm (ppm) G3NH | Difference from 11.22 ppm (ppm) G4NH | Difference from 10.86 ppm (ppm) G5NH |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2a | 0.09 | 0.17 | −0.04 | −0.08 | −0.2 |
2b | 0.093 | 0.22 | −0.066 | −0.135 | −0.34 |
2e | 0.146 | 0.19 | −0.056 | −0.11 | −0.24 |
2c | 0.157 | 0.126 | −0.06 | −0.115 | −0.25 |
2d | 0.094 | 0.16 | −0.03 | −0.07 | −0.13 |
Compounds 2a–2e were subsequently tested against a HeLa cancer cell line (HeLa, American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) (ATCC® CCL-2™)) and they were all prepared in 100, 30, 10 and 1 μM concentrations so that IC50 values could be calculated to establish whether drugs were cytotoxic to HeLa cells (see ESI† S1).
We see that the two groups can be grouped by their absence of oxygen or sulphur, piperidine and 3-methyl indole show quite divergent differences in ppm between bound and unbound forms of the G4 model. These two compounds also have 2 of the higher IC50 values of the 5 intercalating compounds, 24 μM (2d) and 30.5 μM (2c).
Previous studies have demonstrated non-selective binding to DNA and G4 structures where the mode of binding to DNA, like our results, showed a 1:1 stoichiometry, with Gibbs free energy calculations showing a spontaneous intercalation which suggests a stabilising, energetically favourable reaction.19 It was also shown that using piperidine as a N-propylamino attached to carbazoles gave the highest stabilizing ligands in a study.20 Interestingly, however they did identify that there was an inverse correlation between G-tetrad stabilization and G4 DNA selectivity.21 This is very interesting for our results, as it could begin to explain why we see that the relationship between the change in ppm does not correlate completely with IC50 values, even showing an inverse relationship to what was expected from nemorubicin results.17 It could show that G4 ligands intercalate and stabilise very effectively but IC50 will be increased as G4 ligand is less selective for G4 structures. This could explain why we see piperidine having similar chemical difference effects and stabilization effects to other compounds but has a higher IC50. 3-Methyl indole is less investigated for this purpose because of its role primarily as an odourant. There are however genetic studies that show protective mechanisms against damage by 3-methyl indole derivatives that can induce apoptosis at low concentrations. This was shown in a study by Nichols WK they looked at 3-methyl indole mediated cytotoxicity in human epithelial lung cells, with CYP2F1 over expressed.22 This is relevant to this study as it shows that 3-methyl indole has a structure activity relationship which relates to cytotoxicity of genetically impaired cells, which could possibly explain anti-cancer activity.22 The anti-cancer activity of indoles has also been shown with indole groups in isoxazolo[5′,4′:5,6]pyrido[2,3-b]indoles, which showed significant anticancer activity comparable to standard drugs however the mechanism of action and structure activity relationship is yet to be investigated.23
The three groups that contained oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen, and nitrogen and oxygen, 1,3-benzodioxole, 2,5-dimethylthiazole and N-propylmorpholine respectively, showed a close linear correlation between their ability to stabilise G4 structure and IC50. They also, as a group had the best IC50 values with 1,3-benzodioxole and 2,5-dimethyl thiazole as the best candidates for further testing. Further synthesis and reinforcement of DNA binding potential of 1,3-benzodioxole has been illustrated by a study which showed DNA binding was moderate to mild and suggested that cytotoxic effects were through a different mode of action, which supports the selectivity argument for 1,3-benzodioxole.24 They demonstrated through molecular docking that a benzodioxole derivative had potent telomerase inhibition alongside potent anticancer activity in human gastric and human melanoma cell lines.25 This shows that this group may add additional benefit through telomerase inhibition in a different method of action to the one investigated here with G4 stabilisation. The 2,5-dimethylthiazole has been studied extensively in the form of the fluorescent marker thiazole orange for its intercalation potential. It was shown in early research that thiazole orange binds both as a monomer and dimer to DNA. Monomers of thiazole orange stack between DNA bases. It is also shown as the main way of binding with duplex DNA. Interestingly they also reported binding to poly(dG) which showed binding as a monomer and dimer as well. This supports our results showing intercalation and stabilisation of G4 as seen in our results.26 Selective stabilization of G4 structures by thiazole has further been supported more recently with studies that showed 1:1 stoichiometry between dye and G-tetrads in quadruplex DNA. It also illustrated that there was a tight complex formed between the two. Interestingly they showed that in the presence of K+ ions, this binding seemed to disappear.27 To attempt to rationalise the chemical shift difference and IC50 values observed, computational modelling of the 5 ligands with parallel (PDB entry139d) and antiparallel (PDB entry 6IMS) quadruplex structures was undertaken using Autodock Vina both in conjunction with UCSF Chimera 1.15v and CB-Dock – these values are show in Table 3.28–30 The docking box was chosen within Chimera to encompass the entire quadruplex model, thus allowing Vina to search the whole of the target space. The docking box was larger than the upper size recommended for use with Autodock Vina. Therefore blind docking was also carried out using the CB-Dock web server, which uses cavity detection based on analysis of the solvent accessible surface to identify potential docking sites in the target, followed by the use Autodock Vina to generate and score the ligand poses at the detected dicking sites. Because the same scoring function is used by both methods the docking scores are directly comparable. The results are very close to those from Autodock Vina and Chimera which forgoes the cavity detection step. Details of the parameters and programs used can be found in ESI† S1. Energy minima scores were obtained and are shown against IC50 and Δδ values shown in Table 3. Interestingly, ligand 2a gave the best apparent fit to both quadruplex structures as indicated in Fig. 4. It should be noted that there is a correlation between IC50 and all of the docking data, with the exception of 2c, which appears to be an outlier. There appears to be preferential binding to the end of the quadruplex as opposed to intercalation. There is further evidence of groove binding.
Compound | Parallel docking score | Antiparallel docking score | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chimera | CB-Dock | Chimera | CB-Dock | Δδ (ppm) | IC50 (μM) | |
2c | −6.8 | −7.2 | −7.3 | −7.8 | 0.25 | 30.6 |
2b | −6.4 | −6.3 | −6.2 | −6.5 | 0.34 | 24.4 |
2d | −6.6 | −6.9 | −6.4 | −6.6 | 0.13 | 23.84 |
2e | −6.7 | −6.8 | −6.4 | −7.0 | 0.24 | 20.5 |
2a | −8.1 | −8.1 | −7.7 | −7.8 | 0.2 | 18 |
Doxorubicin17 | 0.31 | 0.374 | ||||
Nemorubicin17 | 0.31 | 0.08 | ||||
RHPS4 (ref. 32) | — | 0.2 | ||||
BRACO19 (ref. 33) | — | 5.25 | ||||
Quarfloxin34 | — | 4.44 | ||||
BMH-21 (ref. 34) | — | 0.46 | ||||
CX-5461 (ref. 34) | — | 6.89 |
Fig. 4 Surface energy model of ligand 2a intercalating parallel (PDB entry139d) and antiparallel (PDB entry 6IMS) G-quadruplex strands (UCSF Chimera 1.15). |
Compound 2b, which has a propylmorpholine group has been implemented in the design of compounds for telomeric and oncogenic G-quadruplex affinity with varying degrees of success. It was shown through molecular docking analysis that compounds made with propylmorpholine interact with the groove and or loop of the G-quadruplex, which supports our stacking hypothesis through interaction with these external components. This study also showed inhibition in the growth of A549 cancer cell lines with low cytotoxicity to normal cells. This study concluded that addition of propylmorpholine to naphthalimide supports tumor cell cytotoxicity selectivity.21,31
Looking at Table 3, we see the IC50's of doxorubicin and nemorubicin are much lower than the IC50 values of our synthesised compounds, however we do see that their Δδ is comparable to our two lowest IC50 compounds. This suggests a similar interaction mechanism where a 1:1 stoichiometry, with planar stacking on the G6 tetrad.17 This however does show that G-quadruplex binding may start through this stacking and be an initiating step for cytotoxicity, but we see from these results that side chains give comparable chemical shift differences and intercalation stoichiometry but produce very different IC50 values. This however could be explained by selectivity measures. Comparisons of other G-quadruplex ligands and their IC50 values to synthesised ligands shows promise for these compounds as scaffolds for drug discovery as we see the synthesised compounds IC50 values are within the same order as previously synthesised G-quadruplex ligands.
Whilst there are a number of G-quadruplex ligands currently in clinical trials, there are, as yet no ligands approved for clinical use. The formation of more G-quadruplex structures during the S phase of the cell cycle in neoplasia continues to endorse the need for a greater range of potential ligands, both to probe selectivity and as lead compounds for therapeutic agents as more is understood about how these structures are modulated in human cells at different points within the cycle, having a diverse range of potential ligands may help to make personalised cancer chemotherapy a reality.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/d0md00428f |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2021 |