Afshan
Jamshaid‡
a,
Zhendong
Guo‡
b,
Jeremy
Hieulle
a,
Collin
Stecker
a,
Robin
Ohmann§
a,
Luis K.
Ono
a,
Longbin
Qiu
a,
Guoqing
Tong
a,
Wanjian
Yin
*b and
Yabing
Qi
*a
aEnergy Materials and Surface Sciences Unit (EMSSU), Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University (OIST), 1919-1 Tancha, Onna-son, Okinawa 904-0495, Japan. E-mail: Yabing.Qi@OIST.jp
bCollege of Energy, Soochow Institute for Energy and Materials Innovations (SIEMIS) and Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory for Advanced Carbon Materials and Wearable Energy Technologies, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China. E-mail: wjyin@suda.edu.cn
First published on 16th June 2021
The incorporation of a certain amount of Cl ions into methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) perovskite films and how these incorporated Cl ions affect the structural and electronic properties of these films have been an intensively studied topic. In this study, we comprehensively investigated Cl incorporation in MAPbI3 at the atomic scale by a combined study of scanning tunneling microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, ultraviolet and inverse photoemission spectroscopy, density functional theory and molecular dynamics calculations. At a Cl concentration of 14.8 ± 0.6%, scanning tunneling microscopy images confirm the incorporation of Cl ions on the MAPbI3 surface, which also corresponds to the highest surface stability of MAPbI3 found from the viewpoint of both thermodynamics and kinetics by density functional theory and molecular dynamics calculations. Our results show that the Cl concentration is crucial to the surface bandgap and stability of MAPbI3.
Broader contextMetal halide perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have garnered tremendous attention from the solar cell community because of their high power conversion efficiency and low-cost fabrication. However, PSCs often degrade rapidly upon exposure to moisture and light radiation, which hinders their practical application. Therefore, commercialization of these solar cells is still a challenge. Understanding and resolving these issues necessitate the investigation of perovskite materials at the atomic scale to determine the underlying fundamental processes. In this study, using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) in combination with density functional theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics (MD) calculations, we have determined the atomic scale real space structure of Cl incorporated MAPbI3 surfaces. The surface bandgap of the ultrathin film of MAPbI3 is found to increase by approximately 0.49 eV from 1.13 eV to 1.62 eV when the MAPbI3 surface is deposited with 0.75 ML of PbCl2. At the surface, the concentration ratio of [Cl]![]() ![]() |
To enhance the intrinsic stability of perovskites, mixing of halide anions (I, Br, and Cl) at the X site of the perovskite ABX3 structure has been proposed.4–6 As an example, it has been suggested that mixing MAPbI3 with Cl could greatly improve the stability of the perovskite material against moisture, heat, and light.7,8 Furthermore, Cl incorporation to the perovskite film has shown to be an effective strategy to enhance power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) of the perovskite solar cell device.8 Stergiopoulos and co-workers showed that the MAPbI3 perovskite films incorporated with Cl exhibited good light-harvesting capabilities, and the absorption spectra were stable against prolonged light exposure, as demonstrated by 1000 hours of constant illumination under simulated full sunlight.9 Cl incorporation to the perovskite precursor solution was reported to improve the optoelectronic properties of MAPbI3 (e.g., diffusion lengths for electrons and holes of ∼130 nm and ∼90–105 nm in MAPbI3 increased by approximately 10 times in MAPb(I1−xClx)3, to ∼1069 nm and ∼1213 nm, respectively).10–12 Similarly, it is found that partial substitution of iodine ions by chlorine in α-FAPbI313 and α-CsPbI3 perovskites enhances the interaction between the PbX6 octrahedra and the cations at the “A” sites as well as the bonding between Pb and halides explained by the higher electronegativity of Cl.14–17 Furthermore, the addition of Cl to a more complex perovskite compositions of mixed cations (MACsFA) and halides (I and Br) leads to remarkable optoelectronic properties with a two-fold increase in the photocarrier lifetime and charge carrier mobility.14 These triple halide (I, Br, and Cl) perovskites also showed suppressed light-induced phase segregation even at 100-sun illumination and <4% degradation when integrated into a solar cell device (initial PCE of 20.42%) operated at the maximum power point for 1000 hours.14 Despite the tremendous advantages provided by Cl incorporation for enhancing the optoelectronic properties and stability of perovskites, the question how Cl is incorporated in MAPbI3 is still a topic under debate.18
Several reports have proposed that Cl was absent in the final MAPbI3 film or its concentration was below the detection limits of the analytical instruments.19 Therefore, the Cl-containing compounds (e.g., MACl and PbCl2) were considered as additives that mainly improved the MAPbI3 film morphology.18,20–23 However, some studies based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) and absorption spectroscopy,24,25 indicate that although most of Cl leaves the final perovskite film during the post-annealing process, a small amount of Cl is incorporated in the MAPbI3 film. Based on density functional theory (DFT) calculations, Mosca and co-workers reported that the maximum amount of Cl in the bulk of MAPbI3 is 3–4%.26 Early theoretical calculations suggested that a small amount of Cl may exist at the grain boundaries and play a role in defect passivation.27 Although it is generally accepted that a small amount of Cl can be incorporated in MAPbI3, a consensus has not been reached regarding the location of the residual Cl in the perovskite lattice.10,28 In the past few years, scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) has been used to study the surface structure and electronic properties of perovskite materials down to the atomic level.29–35 The real space lateral atomic resolution of STM has made it a technique of choice for unraveling the location of Cl ions in the perovskite film.
In this work, for the first time we determined the configuration of Cl incorporation in the surface lattice of the MAPbI3 ultra-thin film (∼4–5 nm). By using STM with the assistance of density functional theory (DFT) and molecular dynamics calculations, we show the exact location of the Cl ions at the surface of the perovskite film with atomic-scale precision. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to measure the perovskite film surface composition, while ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photoemission spectroscopy (IPES) were used to show the impact of the Cl incorporation on the surface electronic properties of the MAPbI3 film. We found that the incorporation of Cl ions on the MAPbI3 surface significantly alters its electronic properties, by widening the bandgap of MAPbI3 from 1.13 eV to 1.62 eV. The perovskite bandgap plays a key role in light harvesting and stability14 of PSCs. For single junction solar cells, the bandgap from 1.3 eV to 1.4 eV is ideal,36 while for two junction tandem solar cells the wider bandgap is desirable.14 Thus, bandgap tuning by Cl incorporation in the MAPbI3 can potentially make it a more suitable choice as the top cell in a tandem solar cell. Moreover, from the theoretical point, a larger band gap means a weaker non-radiative charge recombination and longer carrier lifetime.37 The surface contributes to a large portion of carrier recombination in MAPbI3.38,39 The incorporation of a suitable amount of Cl not only passivates the recombination centers,41,42 but also opens a larger gap at the surface,30 which may help create a type-I straddling band alignment40 so that electrons and holes may not easily meet each other at the surface.
At last, we determined the optimal Cl concentration corresponding to the enhanced stability of MAPbI3 surfaces. Similar to our previous STM studies,29,30 it is important to point out that although STM enables atomic-resolution imaging in real space, it is a surface-sensitive characterization technique. Therefore, STM combined with DFT calculations can be employed to investigate the structures and properties of the surface but not the bulk. In addition, in this study, we used UPS and IPES to study electronic properties of the sample surface. The probing depth of UPS and IPES is between 2 nm and 6 nm. Therefore, the findings presented in this work are mainly surface science-relevant and it is nontrivial to make a direct connection with the bulk film in a solar cell device. Nevertheless, our surface science results provide valuable insights into the surface/interface properties of perovskite materials, which play an important role in determining the performance of perovskite solar cells.43,44 Studies have shown that the interface between the charge selective layer and the perovskite film is crucial for achieving high performance solar cells.9,44–46 Therefore, the major aim of our current surface science study is to examine the atomic scale surface structures and electronic properties, which are important for understanding the underlying mechanisms behind (i) Cl diffusion into the perovskite film47–49 and (ii) passivation of surface defects by Cl.41,50
We prepared a total of 7 samples and the results were reproducible for the 0.75 ML of PbCl2 on MAPbI3. Fig. 2 shows the histogram of the apparent height distribution observed at the surface of the MAPbI3 perovskite after Cl ion incorporation (0.75 ML of PbCl2). The determination of the surface concentration of Cl in MAPbI3 was carefully analysed because the surface inhomogeneity of Cl in MAPbI3 was previously reported.51 The protrusion statistics were obtained from 12 STM images acquired on different macroscopic areas of the same sample and are consistent from sample to sample (7 samples in total). The comparison of the pristine and Cl incorporated dimer and zigzag structures is shown in Fig. 3a–l. The distribution of the STM apparent height values for the protrusions observed in these STM images (approximately 900 protrusions) is illustrated by the histogram shown in Fig. 2, and reveals that the average STM apparent height of dark protrusions observed in the STM images is about 0.5 ± 0.2 Å lower than the neighbouring iodine ions (Fig. 3d, e and j, k).
To unravel the origin of the dark protrusions observed in the STM images of MAPbI3 after PbCl2 deposition, we performed DFT calculations by using the Vienna ab initio simulation package (VASP) (see the Methods section). By tentatively assigning the dark protrusions to Cl ions, we obtained simulated STM images of the Cl-incorporated MAPbI3 surfaces. The simulated images reproduce accurately the dimer and zigzag structures observed experimentally for the MAPbI3 surface (Fig S3). Our calculations also reproduce the lowering of the apparent height due to Cl incorporation, which agrees with the experimental STM results (Fig. 3d and j). The incorporated Cl ions in the simulated models were found to be 0.73–0.74 Å (Fig. 3f and l) lower than their neighbouring iodine ions, which agrees well with the experimental value of ∼0.7 Å in Fig. 3e and k and the average value of 0.5 ± 0.2 Å based on the statistical analyses in Fig. 2. Also, we found that the experimental bond lengths (dCl-I) of the Cl–I pairs (∼4.9 and ∼5.0 Å) in the dimer and zigzag structures (Fig. 3e and k) were 5.11 and 5.69 Å, respectively (Fig. 3f and l and Fig. S3b and e, ESI†), which were also in line with the simulated results. Based on the experimental STM data in combination with the DFT calculations and XPS measurement results (Fig. S4–S6, ESI†), we can safely conclude that the dark protrusions in our STM images of the MAPbI3 surface after 0.5 ML and 0.75 ML of PbCl2 deposition are Cl ions that substitute iodine ions on the perovskite film surface. For simplicity, in the following discussions, we denote Cl-incorporated MAPbI3 as MAPb (I1−xClx)3 with x representing the concentration of Cl ions at the surface.
Based on our STM images, on the surface of MAPb(I1−xClx)3, most Cl ions were observed in the regions close to the grain boundaries and only a few in the center of the grains (Fig. 1d, e and Fig. S2b, c, ESI†). The substitution of I ions by Cl ions was observed for both the dimer and zigzag structures (Fig. 3d and j). The majority of incorporated Cl ions were found to form Cl–I pairs with neighbouring I ions (see the dashed circles in Fig. 1d and e). Note that DFT calculations suggest that the dimer structures associated with both the pristine and Cl-incorporated surfaces are more stable than the zigzag ones by about 0.030 eV, in good agreement with the energy difference of 0.034 eV reported in a previous study. 34 In addition, the experimental STM images (Fig. 1e) also show a few incorporated Cl ions bonding together to form the Cl–Cl pairs. The possibility of the appearance of these Cl–Cl pairs was also confirmed by DFT calculations, and the simulated STM images (Fig. S7, ESI†) reproducing well the Cl–Cl configurations observed in the STM experiments.
Fig. 4 shows several configurations for adjacent (Fig. 4a and d) and non-adjacent Cl–I pairs (Fig. 4g) in the dimer structure observed in STM experiments. DFT calculations verified the possibilities of these configurations (Fig. 4b, c, e, f, h and i) as well as predicted several other possible configurations for the adjacent and non-adjacent Cl–I pairs in the dimer and zigzag structures, as shown in Fig. S7 and S8 (ESI†). Note that these configurations in the dimer (Fig. 4 and Fig. S7, ESI†) or zigzag (Fig. S8, ESI†) structures have rather close total energies, which rationalizes the variety of configurations for two Cl–I pairs observed in Fig. 4.
![]() | ||
Fig. 4 STM images of different configurations of Cl–I pairs in the dimer structure. (a) High-resolution STM images of two adjacent Cl–I pairs with opposite directions; arrows indicate the direction from Cl to I ions in the dimer (scan area = 1 × 1.6 nm2; sample bias voltage = −2.50 V, tunneling current = 30 pA). (b and c) Simulated STM image and atomic model for the two Cl–I pairs observed in (a). (d) High-resolution STM image of two adjacent Cl–I pairs showing the same parallel orientation; arrows indicate the direction from Cl to I ion in the dimer (scan area = 1.4 × 1.8 nm2; sample bias voltage = −2.50 V, tunneling current = 30 pA) in two parallel dimers in the small grain in Fig. 1(d and e). (e and f) Simulated STM image and atomic model for the two Cl–I pairs observed in (d). (g) High-resolution STM image of two non-adjacent Cl–I pairs with opposite directions (scan area = 1.7 × 2 nm2; sample bias voltage = −2.50 V, tunneling current = 30 pA) (h and i) simulated STM image and atomic model for the two Cl–I pairs observed in (g). Color code for (c), (f), and (i): Pb (dark gray), I (purple), Cl (green), N (brown), C (ice blue), H (light pink). |
We increased the deposition time of PbCl2 to 12 min to achieve more Cl ion incorporation in the dimer and zigzag structures, but we observed that the MAPbI3 film was completely covered by the 1.5 ML of PbCl2 (Fig. 5). Note that by XPS measurements (Fig. S6, ESI†) on the fully covered MAPbI3 surface by PbCl2, we observed a higher Cl concentration in comparison with the samples after a shorter time of PbCl2 deposition. Considering the fact that the 1 min deposition of PbCl2 did not lead to the surface incorporation of Cl ions in the MAPbI3 film, we deduced that the stable Cl surface incorporation should correspond to those samples after 0.5 ML and 0.75 ML deposition of PbCl2. According to the histogram shown in Fig. 2, the [Cl]:
([Cl] + [I]) concentration of 14.8 ± 0.6% was extracted for the Cl incorporated MAPbI3 (i.e., MAPb(I0.85Cl0.15)3). However, according to the XPS results (Fig. S5, ESI†), an incorporated Cl concentration of 40% was determined, which significantly differs from the concentration extracted from the STM histogram analyses (Fig. 2). This is possibly because XPS measurements not only probe Cl ions mixed in the top surface layer but also those in sub-surface layers.
We further investigated the influence of the incorporated Cl ions on the electronic properties of MAPbI3 films by UPS and IPES measurements (Fig. 6a). Based on the UPS and IPES measurement results, the bandgap of the pristine MAPbI3 film was determined to be 1.13 eV. Note that this bandgap value is substantially lower than the previously reported bandgap of 1.7 eV measured on relatively thick MAPbI3 films,63 which is possibly a result of the substrate effect because of the ultrathin film MAPbI3 samples used in this study. After Cl incorporation with 0.75 ML deposition of PbCl2, the bandgap increased to 1.62 eV (0.49 eV larger than that of the pristine MAPbI3 film), suggesting that the incorporation of Cl ions can effectively tune the electronic properties of MAPbI3.24,52 Our STM and XPS results suggest that Cl ions are not only incorporated in the top layer but also in the sub-surface layers. To determine the main factor that causes the surface bandgap change, we calculated the bandgaps (Fig. 6b) of the MAPbI3 surface models with Cl ions being only incorporated in the top one, top two, and top four layers as a function of the incorporation ratio (assuming the same Cl concentration for all the relevant layers when Cl ions are incorporated into multiple layers), as shown in Fig. 6b. It can be seen that there are no substantial bandgap changes when Cl ions are only mixed into the top layer, being the same as that for Cl-incorporated MAPbBr3.30 However, when Cl ions are contained in the sub-surface layers, the bandgap increases fast with the increasing chlorine incorporation concentration. This trend is even clearer in the case of Cl ions being incorporated in the top four layers. This indicates that the bandgap enlargement observed in the experiment is mainly a synergic effect of the Cl incorporation in the multiple surface layers (or in other words, more a multi-layer film effect rather than a surface effect). From Fig. 6b, we can realize that Cl ions are incorporated in at least the top four layers of the surface model consisting of a total of 8 ML of the perovskite lattice structure (here, we consider the MAI layer as a layer and the PbI2 layer as another layer), as only under this situation the increase of the bandgap (∼0.49 eV) determined by UPS/IPES measurements can be explained qualitatively. We further calculated the density of states (DOS) for the pristine MAPbI3 surface and that with Cl ions incorporated in the top four layers at the concentration of 18.75%, being quite close to the surface Cl ratio of (14.8% ± 0.6%) determined by STM. The comparison of DOS in Fig. 6c also confirmed that incorporated Cl ions would enlarge the bandgap of MAPbI3 by 0.2 eV as a result of the upward and downward shift of the valence and conduction band edges, respectively (Fig. 6c), which is consistent with the experimental observation (Fig. 6a). In addition, the perovskite surface bandgap combined with the analyses of energy level alignments (Fig. S9, ESI†) plays a key role in PSCs53 (Section S1, ESI†).
Previous studies have suggested that Cl incorporation can increase the stability of perovskite materials and solar cell devices.30,54 Therefore, to unravel the origin of the enhanced stability of the Cl-incorporated MAPbI3 surface, we evaluated the changes in the decomposition energy (see the Methods section) of the MAPb(I1−xClx)3 film for different Cl incorporation concentrations through DFT calculations. Here, we consider two different incorporation modes: (1) Cl ions only being incorporated in the top layer of the surface, corresponding to Fig. 7a; (2) Cl ions only being incorporated in the second layer, corresponding to Fig. 7b. It is noticed that upon increasing the incorporated Cl amount, the decomposition energy profiles for both incorporation modes show firstly an increase, and then a decrease. The increase of the decomposition energy is related to the stronger bond strength of Cl–Pb compared to that of I–Pb.55,56 This bond strength originates from the radius of Cl− being smaller than that of I−, causing a shorter bond length and in turn a stronger electrostatic interaction between bonded Cl− and Pb2+ than that between bonded I− and Pb2+. However, the incorporation of the smaller Cl− ion in the inorganic lattice of MAPbI3 also induces the strain, which in turn pushes up the total energy of the system. At low Cl concentrations (i.e., below 18.75%), the influence of the strain on the total energy of the system is not predominant. But when the Cl concentration exceeds a threshold, the strain overrides the benefit of the stronger Cl–Pb bond, leading to the reduction in the decomposition energy. An increase of the decomposition energy with low concentrations of Cl incorporation suggests a higher stability of the MAPbI3 film concerning external stimuli such as temperature or X-ray beams.57 Also, it is found that the maximum increase of the decomposition energy for the incorporation in the second layer (Fig. 7b) is 0.08 eV larger than that for the incorporation in the top layer (Fig. 7a), which indicates that Cl ions mixed into the sub-surface layers play a more significant role in stabilizing the MAPbI3 surface than those in the top layer alone.
In Fig. 7b, the predicted optimal incorporation concentration of Cl into the second layer is 25%, being noticeably higher than that of the top layer (18.75%), which is consistent with our XPS measurements showing that the concentration in the sub-surface layers is higher than that in the top layer. These results also suggest that the Cl− ions in the top-most surface layer can diffuse into the subsurface layers of the MAPbI3 ultra-thin film. We can also understand this experimental finding from the viewpoint of energy according to Fig. 7. From eqn (3) in the Methods section, we can know that at a fixed incorporated chlorine concentration, the higher decomposition energy corresponds to the lower total energy of MAPb(I1−xClx)3. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that when the incorporated concentration is less than ∼40%, the total energy of MAPb(I1−xClx)3 with the incorporation in the second layer is lower than that with the incorporation in the top layer, indicating that Cl ions prefer to stay in the sub-surface layers. This finding is consistent with the experimental observation that the incorporated Cl concentration in the sub-surface layers is higher than that in the top layer. Moreover, it is found that the decomposition energies within the positive range of both the dimer and zigzag structures differ negligibly, which corroborates the experimental observation of Cl ions incorporated in the surface structure with the dimer and zigzag structures simultaneously. Last but not least, when the incorporated [Cl]:
([Cl] + [I]) concentration is higher than ∼25% for incorporation in the top layer and higher than ∼40% for incorporation in the second layer, the decomposition energy of MAPb(I1−xClx)3 becomes negative, meaning that MAPb(I1−xClx)3 cannot exist stably, which determines in principle that the incorporated concentration for stable MAPb(I1−xClx)3 samples will not exceed 25% in the top layer and 40% in the second layer. These predicted upper limits are consistent with our experimental results showing the incorporated Cl concentration of 14.8 ± 0.6% in the top layer and 40% on average in several other sub-surface layers.
To further understand the influence of Cl ions on the stability of Cl-incorporated MAPbI3 surfaces, we also calculated the surface energies of the pristine MAPbI3 surface and that with one I− being substituted by Cl− in the top layer (see Methods section), which are summarized in Table 1. Note that the incorporation of one Cl atom in the MAPbI3 surface leads to a surface energy decrease of 76 meV and 71 meV for the dimer and zigzag structures, respectively (Table 1), which can also explain the stabilization effect of Cl ions on the MAPbI3 surfaces. Also, we performed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of pristine and Cl-incorporated MAPbI3 surfaces with the dimer structure to examine the impact of Cl ions on the vibration of I and Pb atoms in the top and second layers, by calculating the average moving distances for Pb and I atoms during the 1 ps MD simulation, which are shown in Table 2.
Perovskite | Dimer | Zigzag |
---|---|---|
MAPbI3 | 6.354 | 6.385 |
MAPb(I1−xClx)3 | 6.278 | 6.314 |
MAPbI3 | MAPb(I1−xClx)3 (one Cl atom in the first layer) | MAPb(I1−xClx)3 (one Cl atom in the second layer) | |
---|---|---|---|
d I1 (Å) | 2.477 | 2.475 | 2.428 |
d I2 (Å) | 2.605 | 2.481 | 2.336 |
d Pb (Å) | 2.009 | 2.008 | 1.934 |
These results allow us to analyse the stabilization effect of incorporated Cl ions on the MAPbI3 surface from the viewpoint of kinetics. It is noticed that the incorporation of one Cl ion in the top or second layer suppresses the vibration of Pb and I ions in the first and second layer of the surface (Fig. S3, ESI†). The weaker vibration of the inorganic lattice will to some extent suppress the diffusion of some intrinsic defects, such as iodine vacancy and interstitial defects, which contributes to the improved stability of MAPb(I1−xClx)3 surfaces. It is interesting to point out that the Cl ion incorporated in the second layer generates a more obvious impact on lowering the vibration strength of Pb and I atoms than the Cl atom in the top layer, being consistent with the analyses for the decomposition energy in Fig. 7. In conclusion, our DFT calculations verify that the incorporation of Cl ions indeed stabilizes the MAPbI3 surface from the viewpoints of both thermodynamics and kinetics.
![]() | (1) |
The samples were in situ transferred onto a low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope (LT-STM, Scienta Omicron GmbH) for measurements. The STM measurements were performed at 77 K using Pt/Ir STM tips and with the bias voltage applied to the sample. After the STM measurements, the samples were in situ transferred to the analysis chamber (the base pressure of ∼2 × 10−10 Torr) equipped with a hemispherical electron energy analyzer (EA 125, Scienta Omicron GmbH), a He discharge lamp (HIS 13, Scienta Omicron GmbH; He-Iα = 21.22 eV) with an energy resolution of ∼0.15 eV for UPS measurements, and a dual-anode (Al-Kα = 1486.6 eV and Mg-Kα = 1253.6 eV) non-monochromatic X-ray source (DAR 400, Scienta Omicron GmbH) with an energy resolution of ∼0.8 eV for XPS measurements. IPES (LE-1, ALS Technology Co., Ltd)58 measurements were performed in a separate vacuum system, and the sample transfer was conducted with the aid of a custom-designed vacuum suitcase (Ferrovac GmbH), which ensures no ambient exposure during sample transfer. For the quantitative analyses of the peak positions, line widths, and relative areas of the Pb 4f, I 3d, C 1s, N 1s, and Cl 2p XPS data, the raw XPS spectra were fitted with Gaussian–Lorentzian functions using the CASA XPS software.
Es = Eslab − Ebulk, | (2) |
To evaluate the stability of the Cl incorporated MAPbI3 surface, we consider the following reaction:30
![]() | (3) |
![]() | (4) |
Footnotes |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/d1ee01084k |
‡ These authors contributed equally to this work. |
§ Current address: Department Physik, Universität Siegen, 57068 Siegen, Germany. |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2021 |