Haruki Nagakawaa,
Tsuyoshi Ochiaibc,
He Mad,
Changhua Wangd,
Xintong Zhangd,
Yang Shene,
Mai Takashimaef,
Bunsho Ohtanief and
Morio Nagata*a
aDepartment of Industrial Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, 12-1 Ichigayafunagawara-cho, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-0826, Japan. E-mail: nagata@ci.tus.ac.jp
bMaterials Analysis Group, Research and Development Department, Local Independent Administrative Agency, Kanagawa Institute of industrial Science and TEChnology (KISTEC), Kanagawa 213-0012, Japan
cPhotocatalysis International Research Center, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba 278-8510, Japan. E-mail: ochiai.tsuyoshi@gmail.com
dCenter for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, Key Laboratory of UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130024 China. E-mail: xtzhang@nenu.edu.cn
eGraduate School of Environmental Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
fInstitute for Catalysis, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 001-0021, Japan. E-mail: ohtani@cat.hokudai.ac.jp; Fax: +81-11-706-9133
First published on 15th May 2020
A clear understanding of the electron energy structure of TiO2(B)/anatase is needed to study the related catalytic reactions and design new composite photocatalysts. In this study, the electron energy structures of TiO2(B) and anatase were estimated by analyzing the energy-resolved distribution of electron traps measured by reversed double-beam photoacoustic spectroscopy. In the mixture of TiO2(B) and anatase, interfacial charge-transfer excitation from anatase to electron traps of TiO2(B) was suggested. By analyzing this for TiO2(B), the electron level with a relatively high density of states was found to be located ∼0.07 eV deeper than that for anatase. Furthermore, a similar electron energy structure was suggested for a composite photocatalyst having a mixed phase of TiO2(B) and anatase.
We have previously reported the method of reversed double-beam photoacoustic spectroscopy (RDB-PAS)10–12 to measure the energy-resolved distribution of electron traps (ERDT) within oxide semiconductors. This technique enables analysis with higher energy resolution and detection of deeper electron traps than conventional photochemical methods.10 By using a more detailed ERDT information obtained by RDB-PAS, the electron energy structure of an anatase/rutile mixed phase photocatalyst could be discussed.13,14 In this study, we further apply the ERDT analysis to investigate the electron energy structure of mixed phase anatase/TiO2(B) mixture and composite photocatalyst.
TiO2(B) is a monoclinic metastable phase of TiO2. While there are fewer basic and applied studies of it than those of the anatase and rutile phases, it has attracted growing attention in recent years as a material for lithium ion batteries.15–17 In addition, TiO2(B) has been applied as a photocatalyst for hydrogen generation and pollutant decomposition. Especially, the TiO2(B)/anatase composite was reported to have higher photocatalytic activity than either of its components.18–21 Our research group had prepared anatase/TiO2(B) nanotubes with higher activity than the raw material of P25.21 In that paper, we used several characterization methods to estimate the band structure model of anatase/TiO2(B). However, there has been no report on the experimentally measured electron energy structure of TiO2(B)/anatase. Although the band structure and density of states (DOS) of TiO2(B) were theoretically calculated,22,23 the theoretical and actual experimental results often differ. Therefore, experimental evaluation of the detailed electron energy structure of TiO2(B) should be useful in not only designing highly efficient composite photocatalysts but also identifying the reaction mechanism and excitation process.
For comparison, two other TiO2 nanotube samples were prepared using the method reported by Brutti et al.17 TiO2(B) nanotubes were synthesized by adding anatase powder (6 g, Aldrich) to a 15 M solution of NaOH in distilled water (28 mL). The mixture was heated to 150 °C for 72 h in a 40 mL autoclave. After the hydrothermal reaction, the product was washed with 0.05 M HCl (aq), dried under vacuum at 80 °C, calcined at 350 °C and 700 °C for 2 h under dry air flow, and then stored under Ar. These samples are denoted as thick-NT350 (t-NT350) and thick-NT700 (t-NT700).
The phase composition of the samples was calculated from XRD measurements.21 NT350 was determined to be pure TiO2(B), whereas NT450 had a mixed phase of anatase and TiO2(B), and NT700 was pure anatase phase. The characterization of the prepared thick samples was conducted using X-ray diffraction (XRD; Cu Kα at a scan rate of 5° min−1, λ = 0.1542 Å, 40 kV, 100 mA, Rigaku D/max – 2500, Tokyo, Japan) and diffuse reflection spectroscopy (DRS; U-3900/3900H spectrophotometer, Hitachi High-Tech Science, Tokyo, Japan). XRD results (Fig. S1 and S2†) showed that t-NT350 was pure TiO2(B) phase (ICDD 046-1237), whereas t-NT700 was pure anatase phase (ICDD 21-1272). The CBB positions of these samples were calculated from UV-vis DRS measurements (Fig. S3 and S4†).
For the RDB-PAS measurements, ambient-temperature nitrogen gas saturated with methanol was passed at ca. 30 mL min−1 through the loaded RDB-PAS cell, and then the cell was tightly closed. Methanol was used for scavenging positive holes left by the photoexcitation of valence band (VB) electrons to the electron traps (ETs). The RDB-PAS cell was placed in an acrylic box (Unico UN650F) under a nitrogen atmosphere. Two light beams were combined and introduced to the RDB-PAS cell using a UV quartz combiner light guide (Moritex MWS5-1000S-UV3). One beam was the probe light from a 625 nm light-emitting diode (LED; Luxeon LXHL-ND98), whose intensity was modulated at 35 Hz by a digital function generator (NF Corporation DF-1906). The other light beam was the wavelength-scanned continuous monochromatic light from a grating monochromator with a xenon lamp (Bunkokeiki, Tokyo, Japan). The photoacoustic signal was detected using a digital lock-in amplifier (NF Corporation LI5630) by scanning the continuous light from 650 to 300 nm with a 5 nm step. The standard waiting and acquisition times at each wavelength were 160 and 20 s, respectively. The observed signal intensity was plotted against the energy of the continuous light, and the RDB-PA spectrum was differentiated from the lower energy side to the higher energy side. The obtained value was converted to ET density in the unit of μmol g−1 eV−1 with the conversion coefficient. The thus-obtained ERDT was a function of energy from the VBT, and it was replotted in a bar graph with a pitch of 0.05 eV.
To compare the measured and simulated ERDT patterns, their similarity was quantified by the degree of coincidence in their shape (ζ(a)).10 For two ERDT spectra f(1) and f(2) (ERDT pattern profiles as a function of energy from the VBT; the integrated f is equal to the density of ETs (D), and D(1) < D(2)), ζ(a) was evaluated as
Fig. 1 Representative ERDT patterns of NT350, NT700, their 1:1 mixture, the simple summation simulation, and the simulation assuming a −0.07 eV shift of the VBT in NT350. |
In order to estimate the electron energy structures of TiO2(B) and anatase, the ERDT of a mixed sample of NT350 and NT700 was measured (Fig. 1). Moreover, Table 1 compares the measured pattern of the mixture with those from the summation simulation for NT350 and NT700. When the position of the NT350 VBT was shifted to the lower energy side by 0.01 eV, the ζ(a) value increased. A maximum ζ(a) value was obtained at ΔE = 0.07 eV, and then it decreased with further shifts. The simulated ERDT patterns at ΔE = 0 and 0.07 eV are shown in Fig. 1. At ΔE = 0.07 eV, the overall distribution was shifted to the low energy side, and the peak position matched the measured ERDT pattern of the mixture. The values of ζ(a) without and with the energy shift were 0.766 and 0.900, respectively, confirming that they have a very high degree of coincidence after a shift of 0.07 eV.
Shifting energy/eV | Mixture (1:1) samples | |
---|---|---|
NT350 + NT700 | t-NT350 + t-NT700 | |
0 | 0.766 | 0.762 |
0.01 | 0.793 | 0.781 |
0.02 | 0.819 | 0.799 |
0.03 | 0.843 | 0.813 |
0.04 | 0.865 | 0.823 |
0.05 | 0.883 | 0.831 |
0.06 | 0.897 | 0.835 |
0.07 | 0.900 | 0.836 |
0.08 | 0.895 | 0.835 |
0.09 | 0.885 | 0.831 |
0.10 | 0.870 | 0.825 |
0.11 | 0.849 | 0.817 |
0.12 | 0.826 | 0.808 |
0.13 | 0.801 | 0.796 |
0.14 | 0.778 | 0.784 |
0.15 | 0.754 | 0.768 |
Similar analysis was performed for t-NT350 (TiO2(B) phase) and t-NT700 (anatase phase) fabricated by a different method. In Fig. 2, it is confirmed that the ERDT pattern of t-NT350 is distributed at a higher energy than that of t-NT700, similar to the trend observed in the NT samples. The relationship between the energy shift and ζ(a) value of the mixture and summation simulation results are listed in Table 1. The value of ζ(a) has an identical trend to that in the NT samples: the maximum value was obtained at ΔE = 0.07. The ERDT patterns obtained from the mixture of t-NT350 and t-NT700 and the corresponding simulation results at ΔE = 0 and 0.07 eV are shown in Fig. 2. With a VBT shift of 0.07 eV, the positions of maximum ζ(a) for the mixture and simulation are similar, and so are the ERDT patterns. While ζ(a) = 0.762 from the simple summation result, it increased to 0.836 at ΔE = 0.07 eV.
Fig. 2 Representative ERDT patterns of t-NT350, t-NT700, their 1:1 mixture, the simple summation simulation, and the simulation assuming a −0.07 eV shift of the VBT in NT350. |
In the mixture, if excitation occurs from the VBT to ETs in each phase particle, the ERDT pattern of the mixture should match the simple summation result since it uses energy from each VBT. Why does the energy shift described above occur in the simulation? This is considered to be due to the interfacial charge-transfer excitation between TiO2(B) and anatase. In our previous study, the energy shift obtained by simulation suggested that interfacial charge-transfer excitation occurs between anatase and rutile13 and will be reported using various anatase–rutile mixtures in detail.14 In the RDB-PAS measurement, since the excitation light was changed from a long wavelength to a short wavelength, electrons first occupied the low-energy ETs. Therefore, when excitation occurs from the high DOS level of the rutile sample with higher energy to the ETs of the anatase sample with lower energy levels, the obtained ERDT pattern is lower than when excitation occurs in each phase. From this phenomenon, it was confirmed that the high DOS level of rutile is about 0.2 eV higher than that of anatase. A schematic diagram of the relationship between the high DOS levels in the TiO2(B)/anatase combination here is shown in Fig. 3. In the electron energy structure of mixed phase TiO2(B)/anatase, interfacial charge-transfer excitation from the high DOS level of anatase to the ETs of TiO2(B) occurred first when the photocatalyst was irradiated at a long wavelength. Therefore, in the ERDT pattern of the mixture, the energy was shifted to lower than that required to excite to ETs from the high DOS level of TiO2(B). From the simulation results, it can be estimated that the high DOS level of anatase is 0.07 eV higher than that of TiO2(B), because the ζ(a) is maximized when the ERDT pattern of NT350 is shifted by −0.07 eV. This energy positional relationship shows the same tendency as that of VBT obtained in an earlier study and reinforces the previous theory.21
Fig. 4 shows the ERDT pattern and the result of summation simulation for a mixture of NT350:NT700 = 1:3. The relationships between the energy shift and ζ(a) value of this mixture and the results from summation simulation are shown in Table S1.† The maximum value of ζ(a) was obtained at ΔE = 0.08 eV and showed almost the same tendency as the case of 1:1 mix. The shifted ERDT pattern was consistent with that from the mixture in the peak position, and the value of ζ(a) was 0.907 (Fig. 4). On the other hand, when NT350 and NT700 were mixed at a ratio of 3:1, the change of ζ(a) was different (Fig. 5 and Table S1†). The maximum value of ζ(a) was at ΔE = 0.03 eV, and the shift was smaller than those of the 1:1 and 1:3 mixtures. The likely reason for this is the different contact ratios on the surface of TiO2(B) and anatase particles. Our previous study21 showed that NT350 consists of entangled one-dimensional nanostructures and their diameters were ca. 10 nm. The t-NT350 also showed one-dimensional nanostructure and their diameters were ca. 15 nm.17 The length of these nanotubes ranged from several hundred nanometers to several micrometers, but the morphology of NT700 collapsed into small rods of several tens of nanometers. When there are more smaller particles (i.e., NT700) than the larger ones (NT350), the contact ratio between the two types of particles is high because the voids near the larger ones are filled. On the other hand, if there are more larger particles than the smaller ones, the mixture becomes more porous, and so the contact area between the two types of particles will decrease. Therefore, in the NT350:NT700 = 1:1 and 1:3 mixtures, the shift value is large due to the large contact area between the two types of TiO2 particles, and the shift value is considered to be close to the actual energy difference between the high DOS levels of TiO2(B) and anatase. However, in the 3:1 mixture, the contact area between TiO2(B) and anatase is small, the interfacial charge-transfer excitation is insufficient, and the energy shift is smaller.
Fig. 4 Representative ERDT patterns of the 1:3 mixture of NT350 and NT700, simple summation simulation, and simulation assuming a −0.08 eV shift of the VBT in NT350. |
Fig. 5 Representative ERDT patterns of the 3:1 mixture of NT350 and NT700, simple summation simulation, and simulation assuming a −0.03 eV shift of the VBT in NT350. |
Fig. 6 Representative ERDT patterns of NT450, NT350 and NT700 in 1:1 mixture, and simple summation simulation of the mixture. |
From all the above discussion, it was confirmed that the interfacial charge-transfer excitation between two kinds of oxide photocatalysts can be estimated by analyzing the ERDT patterns obtained by RDB-PAS. The electron energy structure of mixed phase TiO2 can be investigated by calculating the energy shift caused by the interfacial charge-transfer excitation. Furthermore, this technique is applicable to not only mixed photocatalysts but also the composite ones. Since the energy structure obtained by theoretical calculation often disagrees with that measured experimentally, this experimental method is expected to be useful for discussing the actual photocatalytic reaction.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: X-ray diffraction patterns and diffuse reflection spectra of t-NT350 and t-NT700. See DOI: 10.1039/d0ra02587a |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2020 |