Effect of practicum courses on pre-service teachers’ beliefs towards chemistry teaching: a year-long case study

Abstract

In this study, we examined the effect of School Experience (SE) and Practice Teaching (PT) courses on pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs towards chemistry teaching over a one-year period. To reach this purpose, participants’ beliefs and experiences towards chemistry teaching were monitored closely throughout the varied phases of the two practicum courses. Two pre-service chemistry teachers participated in the study. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews, observation notes, CoRes and reflection papers. Semi-structured interviews focusing on the pre-service teachers’ beliefs regarding chemistry teaching were conducted three times while participating in the SE and PT courses. During the PT course before their teaching experiences the participants prepared CoRes, and after their experiences they critiqued their own performances. Moreover, the participants were observed during their student-teaching experiences to identify how they transfer their beliefs into their teaching. Data were analyzed via inductive analyses. Results indicated that both pre-service teachers had stable core beliefs derived from their own experiences as students that remained constant during these courses and guided their practical instruction. Although both participants attended the same courses during the teacher education program, their attitudes while taking the educational courses were different. Factors that shaped pre-service teachers’ beliefs towards teaching were presented as the practicum courses enriched with CoRes and reflection papers, observing their mentors, experiences gained from microteaching sessions, and pedagogical and methods courses taken during the pre-service teacher education program. Implications for the formation of pre-service teachers’ beliefs towards teaching throughout pre-service teacher education programs were provided.

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Introduction

Belief is an important construct in teacher education since teachers’ beliefs shape their instructional practice (Nespor, 1987; Cronin-Jones, 1991; Pajares, 1992; Hashweh, 1996). To illustrate this, teachers with traditional beliefs about learning and teaching methods struggle to implement constructivist teaching practices in their classroom (Cronin-Jones, 1991; Crawford, 2007). When we consider pre-service teachers, we notice that they commence their university education with pre-developed beliefs about teaching and learning due to their early formative years (Mellado, 1998; Simmons et al., 1999). As behaviour is influenced by beliefs, it is crucial to make these beliefs explicit during their tertiary education and help pre-service teachers reflect on them at all stages.

Novice and pre-service teachers have unstable, disconnected belief systems that remain pliable (Simmons et al., 1999; Jones and Carter, 2007; Wallace, 2014). Due to this instability, they are more prone to modify these beliefs compared to experienced teachers who have developed stable core beliefs that are more resistant to change.

Therefore, it is important to address pre-service and novice teachers’ beliefs early in their careers when changes are more likely to occur. In addition, beliefs brought into teacher education programs interact with new concepts and materials taught in these programs. Together with other factors, perceptions about teaching will be moulded throughout the pre-service education programs. Factors that contribute to this development should be clarified to help them develop complex belief systems related to teaching (Jones and Carter, 2007).

In the related literature, there have been calls for additional studies to explore the development of pre-service teachers’ beliefs (Wallace, 2014). When we have clear ideas on ‘…changes of attitudes and beliefs over the span of a teacher's career, we can design more effective professional development programs at pre-service and in-service levels’ (Jones and Leagon, 2014, p. 843). Therefore, starting at the initial pre-service level, examining how programs can structure a teacher's beliefs reveals important information.

It is important to determine the changes in pre-service teachers’ beliefs about teaching science and help them reconsider these beliefs in order to improve the quality of teaching and learning activities by avoiding obstacles caused by their existing personal beliefs.

If a program is to promote growth among novices, it must require them to make their pre-existing personal beliefs explicit; it must challenge the adequacy of those beliefs; and it must give novices extended opportunities to examine, elaborate, and integrate new information into their existing belief systems (Kagan 1992, p. 77).

Therefore, in this study, we examined how pre-service chemistry teachers’ preconceptions about chemistry teaching changed after taking two practicum courses over a one-year period, namely School Experience (SE) and Practice Teaching (PT). Also considered were factors that influenced the changes. The research questions of the present study were as follows:

(1) How did pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about teaching chemistry change during and after the year-long practicum courses?

(2) How did pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs affect their teaching practices?

(3) What factors influenced pre-service teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching?

Theoretical framework and background

Teachers’ beliefs

Pajares (1992) defined belief as an ‘individual's judgment of the truth or falsity of a proposition, a judgment that can only be inferred from a collective understanding of what human beings say, intend, and do’ (p. 316). As this definition suggested, human practices are directly related to their beliefs (Koballa et al., 2000; Tsai, 2002). Therefore, it is imperative to comprehend existing beliefs in order to understand their practice because ‘we cannot expect any program of in-service teacher education to effect change in teachers’ behaviours without also effecting changes in their personal beliefs’ (Kagan, 1992, p. 77). To reveal the effect of beliefs on behaviour, the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) provided a path and framework.

Theory of planned behaviour

The TPB explains that a belief influences a person's intention to perform a behaviour in a specific manner. Three types of beliefs exist: behavioural, normative, and control. Behavioural beliefs are those related to possible consequences of the behaviour which result in an attitude toward the behaviour. Normative beliefs involve approval or disapproval of executing a behaviour by specific individuals or groups (Ajzen, 2005). Normative beliefs ‘result in subjective norms or perceived social pressure’ (Ajzen, 2002, p. 665). Control beliefs relate to ‘the presence or absence of factors that facilitate or impede performance of the behaviour’ (Ajzen, 2005, p. 125). Control beliefs lead to perceived behavioural control. Attitude towards the behaviour, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control form the intention to carry out the behaviour (Ajzen, 2002, 2005).

According to the TPB, three factors were reported to influence people's beliefs. First, ‘background’ is a personal factor that involves general attitudes, personality traits, values, emotions, and intelligence. Second, ‘social’ factors relate to age, gender, race, ethnicity, education, income, and religion. Third, a person's experience, knowledge, and media exposure form information-related factors (Ajzen, 2005).

(1) Based on the TPB, two important aspects were inferred: people's beliefs influence their actions; therefore, it is important to reveal those beliefs.

(2) Some of the aforementioned factors influence the formation of those beliefs.

The present study was underpinned by the TPB. Considering that beliefs influence a person's intention to perform a behaviour as the basis of the TPB, in this study we examined pre-service teachers’ chemistry teaching practices as the behaviour and their beliefs about chemistry teaching as the beliefs that influenced that behaviour.

Studies regarding (pre-service) teachers’ beliefs about teaching science

Many studies have attempted to define teachers’ beliefs about teaching science (Aguirre et al., 1990; Hashweh, 1996; Levitt, 2001; Tsai, 2002; Porlán and Martín del Pozo, 2004; Boz and Uzuntiryaki, 2006; Al-Amoush et al., 2014). Tsai (2002) examined the beliefs of thirty-seven in-service teachers regarding teaching and learning science as well as the nature of science. While twenty-one of the thirty-seven teachers held traditional beliefs with respect to teaching science, results showed that only six held constructivist beliefs. Moreover, teachers’ beliefs about teaching science were related to their perceptions regarding learning science and the nature of science. To clarify this, teachers holding traditional beliefs about teaching science also held traditional beliefs about learning science and the nature of science.

The study of Al-Amoush et al. (2014) compared Jordanian, Turkish, and German pre- and in-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning chemistry. Results concluded that the Jordanian teachers had traditional beliefs. Markic and Eilks (2008) and Al-Amoush et al. (2014) defined traditional beliefs as ‘transmission-oriented beliefs of learning with a focus on pure subject-matter knowledge’ and modern beliefs as those ‘based on constructivist learning, student-oriented classroom structures, and an orientation toward more general educational skills, including scientific literacy for all’ (p. 770). The Turkish teachers held more moderate beliefs compared to the Jordanians, but their beliefs about teaching were still more closely related to traditional views. Conversely, the German teachers expressed the most modern beliefs about teaching. That said, Markic and Eilks (2010) mentioned that most of the German pre-service chemistry teachers during their first year in the program also held teacher-centred beliefs.

Similarly, Bryan (2003) defined the belief system of pre-service elementary teachers regarding science teaching and learning. Beliefs were categorized as foundational and dualistic beliefs. Foundational beliefs were very resistant to change. On the other hand, dualistic beliefs were unstable and had contradictory elements. Likewise, Boz and Uzuntiryaki (2006) found that most prospective chemistry teachers held unstable beliefs and that inconsistencies were evident.

Studies regarding the relationship between (pre-service) teachers’ beliefs and their practice

Some researchers (e.g., Cronin-Jones, 1991; Hashweh, 1996; Crawford, 2007) noted the consistency between teachers’ beliefs and their practice. To illustrate this, Hashweh (1996) reported that teachers with constructivist beliefs tended to detect students’ alternative conceptions more frequently. They possessed richer repertoires of teaching strategies and applied teaching strategies more effectively compared to teachers with empiricist beliefs.

In contrast, some researchers reported cases of inconsistencies between belief and practice (Simmons et al., 1999; Haney and McArthur, 2002; Uzuntiryaki et al., 2010). For example, Haney and McArthur (2002) analysed the beliefs of four pre-service science teachers with respect to constructivist teaching and whether these beliefs were consistent with their actual practices in the classroom. Two kinds of beliefs emerged from the data analysis. One kind was central core beliefs that guided pre-service teachers’ classroom practice. The other kind was peripheral beliefs that had been mentioned but not implemented in the classroom. Although all pre-service teachers believed that students should assume roles in deciding and planning their learning processes, none reflected this in their lesson structures.

Uzuntiryaki et al. (2010) stated that the relationship between pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs and their practice was not this straightforward. Factors such as deficient chemistry knowledge, the abstract nature of the topic, large class sizes, school facilities, and teaching methods employed by their mentors all caused potential divergence between pre-service teachers’ beliefs and practice. Wallace (2014) mentioned the lack of content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) required to employ constructivist teaching strategies as potential causes for the disconnect between teachers’ beliefs and practice.

In the related literature, studies have explored the development of (pre-service) teachers’ beliefs about science teaching. Veal (2004) examined the development of two pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about teaching and their PCK during a student-taught science curriculum course over a one-year period. He found an inseparable and synergistic link between the teachers’ beliefs about teaching and their PCK. Likewise, Luft et al. (2011) investigated the development of novice science teachers’ beliefs over a two-year period. Teachers’ beliefs shifted toward a student-centred model by the end of the first year; however, they reverted to more traditional views by the end of the second year. Teachers who received specific science training still implemented more student-centred teaching strategies in their classes. Another example of the development of beliefs about science teaching was Markic and Eilks (2013), a cross-level study that investigated the development of pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about teaching and learning. While university freshmen held traditional beliefs, they found that student teachers at the halfway point of their programs held the most modern beliefs about teaching. Recently graduated teachers held more modern beliefs compared to freshmen students but less modern beliefs compared to student teachers who had partially completed their teacher education programs.

Factors influencing teachers’ beliefs about teaching

Findings from numerous studies revealed that different factors influenced teachers’ beliefs about teaching, in particular, prior experiences. Student teachers who were traditionally educated tended to form traditional beliefs that might have been transmitted into their instruction (Lasley, 1980; Trumbull and Slack (1991) as cited in Tsai, 2002; Tsai, 2002). In addition to pre-service teachers’ prior experiences as students, their teacher education programs might have influenced their beliefs (Özgün-Koca and Şen, 2006). Experiences in theoretical coursework impacted the development of their beliefs; for example, Wilkins and Brand (2004) highlighted the positive influences of a teaching methods course on teachers’ beliefs about teaching. After attending the course, pre-service teachers’ beliefs showed marked improvement and enhanced consistency related to educational reforms for mathematics. Similarly, Hart (2002) confirmed Wilkins and Brand's (2004) findings by concluding that pre-service teachers’ beliefs evolved toward more constructivist ideals after attending integrated content/methods courses. Also, pre-service teachers’ experiences in actual classrooms affected their beliefs. Hancock and Gallard (2004) stated the influence of field experiences by indicating that student teachers gravitated toward either teacher-centred or student-centred instruction by the end of their field placement sessions. Zeichner and Tabachnick (1981) concluded that ‘students become increasingly more progressive or liberal in their attitudes toward education during their university studies and then shift to opposing and more traditional views as they participate in student-teaching and in-service experiences’ (p. 7). This might be due in part to the difference in demand between high school and university. Richardson (1996) stated that contradictory results have been reported in teacher education programs. She claimed, ‘some programs effect change and others do not; some programs affect certain types of students and not others; and some beliefs are more difficult to change than others’ (p. 111).

Methodology

Research design

This qualitative research was designed as a case study (Creswell, 1998). Creswell (1998) defined a case study as one that entails in-depth examination of a case with clearly defined boundaries. We aimed to elicit pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching by examining each case in detail to reveal the answers to our research questions.

Participants

We chose two female pre-service teachers named Barbara and Linda who consented to participate in this study. They were enrolled in the Department of Chemistry Education that offers a five-year (10-semester) teacher education program. During their studies, the pre-service chemistry teachers were enrolled in courses for subject matter (e.g., General Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry) and pedagogy (e.g., Methods of Science Teaching and Curriculum Development in Science Education), and two practicum courses, School Experience (SE) and Practice Teaching (PT). At the time of the study, the participants were both in their ninth semester. They had finished most of the subject matter and pedagogical courses and were attending the SE course when the study began. Barbara and Linda were monitored for a full year up to and including completion of PT. During SE and PT, the participants were assigned to the same partner high school and conducted student–teacher instruction sessions under the supervision of the same mentor.

Context

The context of the study involved SE and PT courses. Detailed information of the two courses is as follows.

Description of the SE course. The purpose of the SE course was to familiarize pre-service chemistry teachers with the teaching profession as well as classroom and school environments. The course was based primarily on class observation in the partner school. Pre-service teachers observed their mentors’ teaching methods, questioning techniques, and classroom management skills with the aid of predetermined checklists. Moreover, the participants observed their mentor's PCK by utilizing an observation form based on the five components of Magnusson, Krajcik and Borko's (1999) PCK model. The components were knowledge of learners, knowledge of assessment, instructional strategies, knowledge of curriculum, and science teaching orientations (see Appendix A). After making observations based on PCK components, the two participants discussed their observations during weekly one-hour classes at the college of education.

Description of the PT course. The purpose of the PT course was to provide pre-service teachers the opportunity to experience teaching sessions at partner high schools and at the college of education. They performed microteaching in the college and student teaching at the high school. Feedback was received from their mentors and tutors after each teaching experience. After practical teaching, they critiqued their own performances based on the five PCK components. Moreover, the participants prepared lesson plans before each teaching session in both the college and high school. CoRe (content representation) was the preferred lesson plan format (see Appendix B). Developed by Loughran et al. (2004), CoRe is designed to reveal a teacher's PCK for teaching a specific science topic and involves both vertical and horizontal axes. Big ideas, the vital concepts for students’ understanding of a topic, are placed on the horizontal axis. The vertical axis registers questions based on PCK components such as the concepts or big ideas that students are expected to learn, difficulties that students typically encounter about each concept/idea, teaching strategies, specific activities that might be useful for helping students develop an understanding of the concept, and more.

Data collection tools

Semi-structured interviews. After receiving permission from the ethics committee of the university, we began collecting data. The pre-service teachers were interviewed individually three times while participating in the SE and PT courses. Table 1 shows the timing and purposes of the interviews. Some of the interview questions were taken from the studies of Boz (2008) and Boz and Boz (2006), while others were generated by the authors. The second and third authors of this study conducted the interviews. Both had been studying qualitative research for more than ten years. They had conducted interviews many times and were already trained to ensure impartiality and consistency. Each interview lasted about 25 minutes. Examples of interview questions are listed below:

Table 1 Timing and purposes of instruments in this study

Instrument(s)	Placement	Purpose(s)
1st interview	Beginning of the SE course (9th semester)	To reveal the pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs regarding chemistry teaching
2nd interview	After finishing observations in the SE course (9th semester)	To understand the influence of observation of school environments and the mentor's instruction on the pre-service teachers’ beliefs regarding chemistry teaching
CoRes	Before teaching experiences during the PT course (10th semester)	To define the pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs and determine the inconsistencies between their CoRes and teaching practice
3rd interview	After the PT course (10th semester)	To evaluate the influence of experiencing PT on the pre-service teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching
Field notes	During the observation of the pre-service teachers’ instruction during the PT course (10th semester)	To observe the pre-service teachers’ instruction in the teaching experience course and to understand how they transmit their beliefs into instruction
Reflection	After teaching experiences during the PT course (10th semester)	To understand the pre-service teachers’ evaluations of their own instruction and the factors influencing the pre-service teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching
Reflections 2 & 3	After the SE and PT courses (9th and 10th semester)	To identify the factors influencing the pre-service teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching

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(1) In your opinion, how is chemistry taught effectively, and why?

(2) How did your beliefs change as a result of your observations at schools?

(3) How did your beliefs change as a result of your teaching practice at schools?

(4) Can you evaluate the impact of your mentor on your beliefs about chemistry teaching?

(5) What types of problems did you encounter during your first school placement and in-class practice sessions?

Although English was the language of instruction in the university where we collected data, interviews were conducted in Turkish. Therefore, the interview questions were translated into English by this study's researchers who are fluent in both Turkish and English. Moreover, in some cases, back translation was provided in order to not corrupt the original data. For instance, interview questions obtained from the related literature were already in English. The three authors translated them into Turkish independently and then formed the final versions of the questions through discussions. After conducting interviews and analysing data, final interview questions were translated back to English.

Observation notes. The pre-service teachers’ practice instruction sessions were observed by one of the researchers in the present study as well as their mentor at the partner high school. Field notes in Turkish were taken regarding classroom management skills; chemistry competency; references to alternative concepts; the nature of science; use of macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations of the topic; the effective use of teaching methods; and the effective use of time. In this study, the researcher was a complete observer with no discussion or instructional input during any part of the classes (Patton, 2002).

Content representation (CoRe). Table 1 gives information about the timing and purposes of the CoRe. The pre-service chemistry teachers prepared CoRes in English as a lesson plan before each instruction. In the present study, the revised version of CoRe by Aydin et al. (2013) was used (see Appendix B)

Reflection papers. Reflection papers helped us to form ideas about the pre-service teachers’ evaluations of their own instruction and any factors that may have influenced their beliefs about teaching chemistry. For the first reflection paper, the pre-service teachers critiqued their own instruction at the partner high school based on PCK components. For the second and third reflection papers, they critically evaluated their SE and PT courses (use of observation forms, CoRes, microteaching, teaching experiences at partner high schools, and more). Reflection papers were written in English.

Analysis of data

Multiple data sources were used in the present study, including semi-structured interviews, CoRes as lesson plans, observation notes, and reflection papers. In order to investigate our first research question, semi-structured interviews were conducted as the main data source. For the second research question, data collected via semi-structured interviews, observation notes, and CoRes were analysed. For the third research question, semi-structured interviews and reflection papers were analysed.

In order to analyse data, an inductive analysis was performed. First, semi-structured interviews were transcribed. After transcription, all interviews were read and emergent categories were formed. Codes were then placed under some categories. The codes that emerged from the analysis of data are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about effective chemistry teaching

Participant	Before the SE course	After the SE course	After the PT course
Barbara	‘Student-centred instruction’	‘Analogies’	‘Macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic representations’
	‘Analogies’	‘Daily life examples’	‘Experiments’
	‘Experiments’	‘Experiments’	‘Daily life examples’ ‘Analogies’
	‘Daily life examples’	‘Macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic representations’	‘The relationships among topics and ordering of these topics’
	‘Macroscopic, microscopic and symbolic representations’	‘Lecturing’	‘Time allocated to a topic’
			‘Lecturing’
Linda	‘Experiments’	‘Experiments’	‘Daily life examples’
	‘Daily life applications’	‘Why, how questions’	‘Experiments’
	‘Why, how questions’	‘Daily life examples’	‘Why, how questions’
	‘Animations, simulations’	‘Animations, simulations’	‘Microscopic level’
			‘Lecturing’

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By examining these codes, participants’ beliefs were further categorized as core or peripheral beliefs. Core beliefs were those deemed stable and central. They did not change at all during the development cycle. Moreover, these beliefs were also reflected in their instruction. On the other hand, peripheral beliefs were less stable and more prone to change through experience over time. They were not reflected in the participants’ instruction.

After categorization of core and peripheral beliefs, a secondary categorization was conducted based on whether participants’ beliefs reflected constructivism or not. Two categories emerged from this analysis: constructivist beliefs and transitional beliefs. Constructivist beliefs refer to beliefs that are consistent with the characteristics of the constructivist approach. Transitional beliefs encompass both constructivist and traditional views. If a participant had both constructivist and traditional beliefs, this was categorized as transitional. Participants with transitional beliefs would be viewed as having inconsistencies in their belief systems.

Data obtained from observation notes, CoRes, and reflection papers were analysed through content analysis. They were used to support the findings obtained from the interview questions for the second and third research questions.

Trustworthiness of the study

This study featured prolonged engagement, persistent observations, and triangulation to provide trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). While the first author of the study was the instructor, the other two authors were teaching assistants of the courses. The second and third authors observed all of the participants’ instruction periods at both the college of education and the partner high school; they also spent considerable time with them and talked frequently about their instruction. In total, they spent two semesters (∼28 weeks) with the participants. Therefore, prolonged engagement and persistent observations were ensured.

Triangulation of sources was provided by using different data sources, including interviews, observations, field notes, and reflection papers to examine the same phenomena. Patton (1999) defined analyst triangulation as ‘using multiple analysts to review findings’ (p. 1193). This was provided by asking two colleagues to analyse certain parts of the data by giving them transcribed documents of the interviews. After their analysis, we met to discuss incongruent sections until we arrived at complete agreement. Moreover, the instruction sessions of each pre-service teacher were observed by one of the authors as well as another research assistant in the real classroom environment. After observation, they met to discuss their observations. Any incongruences were solved by negotiation.

Results

Barbara and Linda's beliefs about chemistry teaching were categorized by using the data shown previously in Table 2. Maintained and emerging beliefs about chemistry teaching before and after the SE and PT courses are provided in Table 3. Detailed explanations for the pre-service teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching are given below.

Table 3 Changes in the pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs about chemistry teaching during the SE and PT courses

Participant	Before the SE course	After the SE course	After the PT course
Barbara	Constructivist beliefs	Transitional beliefs between traditional and constructivist beliefs	Transitional beliefs between traditional and constructivist beliefs
Linda	Constructivist beliefs	Constructivist beliefs	Transitional beliefs between traditional and constructivist beliefs

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Barbara's beliefs about chemistry teaching before the SE course

Constructivist beliefs. As shown in Table 3, Barbara had constructivist beliefs before attending the SE course and any school placement. She stated that student-centred instruction was necessary for effective chemistry instruction and explained this by citing an example regarding the topic of surface tension:

If I ask students what happens when I put a steel paperclip in water, they will probably say it will sink. I could respond by saying it will float based on surface tension. However, rather than give the answer, I can demonstrate the concept to the class by actually placing a paperclip in water and asking students what they thought would happen. They will make predictions, after which they will see that the paperclip floats. Through the support of the demonstration, we can discuss reasons while explaining surface tension. Since students are involved in the process and have witnessed the result in person, the lesson is student-centred and more effective.

Barbara's statements reveal the importance of active involvement of students in their learning process. This is a characteristic of constructivist instruction. The way she learned chemistry concepts through laboratory experiments in the college of education influenced her beliefs about the necessity of student-centred instruction for effective chemistry teaching:

Laboratory courses were like this as we felt we were the part of the instruction. The important factor was to understand the learning process of students. We were asked questions such as what we observed and what we could infer from these observations instead of merely stating the result of an experiment.

Barbara also explained the characteristics of student-centred instruction and the role of the teacher in a student-centred instruction: ‘Student-centred instruction does not mean that the teacher will do nothing and students will learn everything by themselves. As a teacher, I should be designing the activities, managing, and guiding students through the lesson’.

Barbara's beliefs about chemistry teaching after the SE course

Transitional beliefs between constructivist and traditional beliefs. After completing the SE course, Barbara had transitional beliefs (both constructivist and traditional beliefs) as seen in Table 3. Compared to what she stated earlier, she found that lecturing could also be an efficient method to teach chemistry effectively:

I was persistent about the necessity of student-centred instruction before my school placement, but my ideas about lecturing changed. I realized that I might also use lectures for effective teaching. Lecturing should not be unilateral. As a teacher, if I wrote everything on the board, students would simply copy the same information into their notebooks. I realized that lecturing can be performed differently. For instance, I might write paraphrases on the board while students devise notes that demonstrate their understanding of concepts discussed. Apart from improvements in content knowledge, their listening and note-taking skills also improve. Lecturing is not confined to teachers writing information on a board for students to copy. I realized at my school placement that lecturing can be used effectively.

According to this quote, Barbara realized that lecturing could also be used effectively when students take notes that paraphrase information in their own words while the teacher continues to teach. Her definition of lecturing changed because of the SE course. Before school placement, she felt that lecturing was a unilateral process, with students copying verbatim the information that the teacher had written on the board. Observation of her mentor's instruction changed her opinion about lecturing as an efficient method to enhance teaching and learning. Also, Barbara offered constructivist ideas:

Teachers should engage students by asking their ideas and thoughts about issues. They should give students the confidence that their opinions are important, that their input matters, and that teachers are not an authority figures in the class, that is, students and the teachers learn together. If students actively question the concepts they learn, learning will be more permanent.

Barbara's beliefs about teaching chemistry after the PT course

Transitional beliefs encompassing constructivist and traditional beliefs. As seen in Table 3, Barbara had transitional beliefs that included both constructivist and traditional views after attending the PT course. Her constructivist beliefs stemmed from her belief that student-centred instruction is necessary to improve students’ learning:

We learned student-centred teaching methods in our methods course [methods of science teaching course]. We are familiar with the application of 5E learning cycle. I can easily adapt [the] 5E learning cycle model to every topic and see it works well for student-centred instruction.

However, after her PT teaching experience, Barbara's views on the implementation of student-centred teaching methods changed. In her reflection paper, she stated that it was very difficult to apply student-centred instruction at the high school compared to a lecture-based format that was easier and more applicable in the real classroom environment. She described appropriate lecturing as the incorporation of examples from daily life and analogies. She stated that her mentor used analogies and related information in his lectures as well. Though Barbara believed strongly in the necessity of student-centred instruction to improve student learning, she also recognized the difficulties of implementation in high schools.

Barbara felt that one impediment prohibiting the reflection of her pedagogical beliefs in actual practice was the high school students’ lack of familiarity with alternative teaching methods. She found her experiences in university were different from what she experienced during the school placements:

In university, we prepared student-centred lessons that were easy to apply as our friends did not behave like high school students. Instruction based on 5E learning was difficult to apply in high school because students were not familiar with the instruction method. When I asked questions to engage the students, they did not participate. Some students were impossible to motivate into satisfactory participation. Therefore, I do not think we should insist on student-centred instruction in the schools.

Barbara had explained a common difference between microteaching in the college of education and pre-service teaching at partner high schools. She also suggested that the incorporation of student-centred instruction was difficult to apply at schools based on the teaching methods of mentors:

Our mentors teach traditionally; therefore, students have been taught to listen and take notes. They are not accustomed to participating during classes. Therefore, when I asked a question, students did not answer. Perhaps they were afraid of giving wrong answers.

For her practical sessions, Barbara adopted the 5E learning cycle, one example of student-centred instruction, in order to teach Boyle's law. However, based on the observation notes of the researcher, she could not reflect this completely in her instruction. During her lesson, she tried to involve students by asking them questions but struggled to elicit any responses. Eventually, she had to provide the answers herself. Students were only partially active during her classes. This serves as evidence explaining her transitional beliefs that combine constructivist and traditional ideas.

Barbara's core beliefs

Barbara's core beliefs showed no significant changes over time. As seen in Table 2, they included the use of analogies; experiments; daily life examples; and macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations of concepts. These beliefs stemmed from her own experiences as a student while taking laboratory courses in university: ‘During a laboratory experiment course, I realized I learned better and that learning outcomes were more permanent when chemistry concepts were considered in detail and augmented with daily life examples, experiments, and activities’.

Observation notes of the researcher revealed that Barbara's core beliefs were also reflected in her practice. Her instruction involved linking the topic with daily life examples, experiments, analogies, and macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations of the topic.

Barbara's peripheral beliefs

Beliefs that evolved over time were labelled peripheral beliefs. As seen in Table 2, Barbara had peripheral beliefs regarding student-centred instruction, relationships among topics, the sequencing of those topics, and the time allocated to a topic in the curriculum. The SE and PT courses influenced her beliefs about student-centred instruction. Moreover, her PCK influenced the formation of peripheral beliefs about chemistry teaching. For effective teaching, Barbara believed she should know the relationships among topics and their sequence:

In the curriculum, kinetic theory is explained after gas laws. However, for effective teaching, I should introduce kinetic theory before gas laws and explain motion of gas particles and collision before explaining gas pressure. As a teacher, if I explained gas pressure before teaching kinetic theory, students would not have the relevant information to grasp the concept. I should also be aware of the time allocated to a topic to use it effectively and to avoid exceeding curriculum limits. For example, I should not allow two class hours for atom bombs while teaching sub-atomic particles.

The above statement reveals Barbara's belief that teachers should have solid knowledge of the curriculum, one of the five components for PCK. In her reflection paper, she stated that observing her mentor's instruction methods with the aid of a form based on PCK components and preparing CoRe lesson plans both solidified her belief in the importance of PCK components in order to teach chemistry effectively.

Linda's beliefs about chemistry teaching before the SE course

Constructivist beliefs. Linda had constructivist beliefs at the beginning of the SE course, that is, before she had experienced any high school placement (see Table 3). Her prior experiences as a student were influential in shaping those beliefs:

I think chemistry should be taught through experiments; they should be linked with daily life examples and the teacher should ask ‘why’ questions frequently during the lesson so that students understand the reasoning for any concept rather than simply memorize results or facts. Students should be active in the classroom and construct their own knowledge. I learned better this way. I think the methods that produced your best learning outcomes as a student will be similar to the methods you employ to ensure the most effective learning for your students.

Beyond experiments, daily life applications, and the use of probing questions mentioned above, Linda also mentioned the importance of animations, simulations, and the use of visual elements to enhance learning outcomes.

Linda stated that initially she was hesitant about becoming a teacher; however, her thoughts began to change during the courses related to teaching methods and pedagogy. These courses influenced her attitude towards teaching and were influential in moulding her beliefs.

I once viewed education as a teacher dictating information to the class. I was not aware of alternative teaching methods until I took some education courses [related to pedagogy]. I began to see teaching as something special that I might do to improve the education of children. Thus, I became more positive toward teaching.

Linda's comments express the importance of methods and pedagogical courses in forming pre-service teachers’ beliefs about teaching.

Linda's beliefs about chemistry teaching after the SE course

Constructivist beliefs. After her first school placement experience in the SE course, Linda's beliefs did not change at all. As seen from Table 3, she still had constructivist ideas. Likewise, at the beginning of the course, she emphasized the importance of experiments as well as why/how questions in order to activate students in their learning process. She referred to her experiences as a student: ‘I was and also am a student. If a teacher made me an active participant through questions, my learning became more permanent’. The statement reveals the importance of engaging students in class to make them active participants in their individual learning process. Moreover, Linda believed it was important for students to participate in knowledge construction: ‘Knowledge should be constructed by students. There is a simple phrase stating that if you do something by yourself, you will grasp it better. Therefore, it is imperative that we include experiments in chemistry instruction’. Linda also emphasized the need to conduct experiments properly in class: ‘Teachers should not simply perform an experiment and then say it is complete and over with. They should involve students in the learning process by asking why and how questions before, during, and after the experiment. Students should always be active, including during the experiments’. She also mentioned the importance of integrating technology into teaching and stated that animations, simulations, videos, posters, and other visual aids should be used frequently. This belief also resulted from her own experiences as a student: ‘As a student, I learned chemistry better when I could visualise the concepts. For example, I feel that microscopic representation of chemistry is important’. Linda also criticized the way her mentor taught at the partner high school during her placement during the interview:

I did not observe anything that I must apply myself, but I saw things I would surely not do. For example, students solved a lot of problems in the classroom. These problems do not promote their creativity. They are just exercises where they plug values into a formula to solve them. Take chemical equilibrium as an example, students solve plenty of exercises, but do they really know what chemical equilibrium means conceptually? When I become a teacher, I will certainly not assign so many exercise-type problems in my classroom.

When we asked Linda whether her school observation and teaching experiences impacted her views about effective chemistry teaching, she repeated that she observed things that she would not do as a teacher and gave another example:

The teacher always solved exercises. After a short explanation of something, for example the concept of chemical equilibrium, she began solving problems. These are mathematical problems. I certainly would not use this type of instruction model as a teacher. Students can solve problems on their own at home, but they might not learn the topic conceptually.

We can conclude that Linda's first school placement experience did not positively affect her beliefs.

Linda's beliefs about chemistry teaching after the PT course

Transitional beliefs between constructivist and traditional beliefs. Linda had both constructivist and traditional beliefs (see Table 3). She reiterated the importance of active involvement of students in class and gave the following example:

I taught Boyle's law in the high school. Instead of saying ‘when volume decreases, pressure increases’, I used marshmallows in a syringe to explain the relationship of volume and pressure. I asked questions to students to engage them, and they we able to deduce the P–V relationship themselves. It was easier for me and better for them.

After the PT course, we could say that Linda beliefs about teaching chemistry did not change considerably with the exception of her attitude toward lecturing. She still felt that the use of experiments was vital in teaching chemistry because students would learn better by first-hand involvement. This belief resulted from her experiences as a student. ‘When we used experiments, students learned better. I use the formation of soap experiment as an example. When I performed the experiment myself, my learning became more permanent’.

Linda also mentioned the emphasis of microscopic representation of chemistry: ‘You can see what happens macroscopically, but I think it is also important to understand what happens at the microscopic level. The importance of the microscopic level cannot be overlooked’. Therefore, the only noticeable change was Linda's thoughts about lecturing after observing both her mentor and a colleague's instruction methods:

I was convinced I would never use lecturing as a teaching method because I felt the students would be bored. However, after observing my mentor's instruction, I saw that he lectured in an effective way. He could incorporate analogies and microscopic representation of the topic very well into his lectures. Another example was one of my friends who lectured in a microteaching session. He explained the topic so well I changed my opinion about lecturing, and now believe I can use this method of delivery as well.

These statements show that Linda's observations at the high school and during microteaching sessions in the college of education were influential in the formation of her beliefs. Similarly, in her reflection paper, she stated that she still did not have enough knowledge about different teaching strategies such as drama, conceptual change, role play, and lecturing. She had mostly used the 5E learning cycle until then. During the microteaching sessions, Linda was able to observe different teaching strategies. In the partner high school she only observed lectures. At the beginning of the semester, she believed that lecturing could never be a student-centred form of instruction; however, after observing her mentor's lecture she realized that lecturing can be a student-centred technique and therefore useful for explaining various chemistry concepts. Apart from new opinions about lecturing, the school placements did not affect Linda's beliefs. That said, her critical evaluations of educational courses in university helped form some of her beliefs about teaching. Linda still preferred to use lecturing in a student-centred way. In this respect, while she exhibited some transitional beliefs that straddled constructivist and traditional approaches, she was more closely aligned to the constructivist model compared to Barbara.

When asked about the potential influences of the PT course and the high school placements on her beliefs, Linda stated that the PT course did not change her beliefs much:

I always had a certain plan in mind beforehand, constantly considering what to use or not use, and I would always refer back to the curriculum. These were constantly on my mind. I finally had the chance to test my plans in the practice teaching course.

As inferred from the above statement, Linda thought ahead about what she should include in her teaching and had formed her beliefs before the PT course. She had critically evaluated her thoughts and priorities about teaching, and she had already formed her own basic framework for effective chemistry teaching before entering the PT course. This might have resulted from critical evaluations of what she had learned from the courses.

Another issue that influenced the formation of Linda's beliefs was CoRe. In her reflection paper, she stated that preparation of CoRe was crucial for identifying the vital points necessary for effective chemistry instruction:

While you prepare CoRe, you need to be aware of students’ potential learning difficulties regarding a topic. You need to consult the curriculum to see if there are other related points that need to be addressed while preparing lessons. CoRe provided a way for me to uncover the smaller details necessary for effective teaching in the big picture.

Linda's core beliefs

Linda had core beliefs regarding the use of experiments, daily life applications, incorporating content at the microscopic level, and the use of why/how questions for effective chemistry instruction. The way she learned as a student shaped these core beliefs, and in turn, those beliefs were reflected in her practical teaching. In her instruction sessions, Linda used many why/how questions, daily life examples, and a demonstration. She also considered the microscopic representation of a concept and used animations for this purpose.

Parallel to her beliefs, Linda activated students by engaging them with questions. She also used a simple marshmallow and syringe experiment to illustrate the pressure–volume relationship:

Instead of telling students that pressure decreases when volume increases, I tried to make them realize this relationship by putting a marshmallow in the syringe. When I increased the volume, the pressure decreased and the marshmallow expanded. It was an interesting activity. More importantly, I think students will remember the relationship between P and V since their learning became more permanent through visualization.

From these statements we saw that Linda intended to make students discover the relationship between pressure and volume rather than tell them directly.

Linda's peripheral beliefs

Linda also had peripheral beliefs regarding lecturing. Observation of her mentor's instruction in the partner high school and her colleague's instruction during a microteaching session in college were both influential in the formation of these beliefs. When she observed that her mentor was able to lecture effectively in the classroom, she saw ways to use lectures in her instruction as well. Moreover, in the microteaching sessions, effective use of lecturing by a friend also influenced her beliefs about lecturing.

Discussion

The present study aimed to explore changes in the two pre-service chemistry teachers’ beliefs regarding effective chemistry teaching after one year of SE and PT coursework. It was found that both pre-service teachers had stable core beliefs that remained constant during these courses and guided their practical instruction. For example, Barbara's core beliefs included the use of analogies; experiments; daily life examples; and macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations of concepts. In order to teach Boyle's law, Barbara used daily life examples, an analogy, plus she made macroscopic, microscopic, and symbolic representations of the topic. Her experiences as a university student were effective in the formation of these beliefs. The way Barbara learned concepts in the laboratory course convinced her that students should be taught the same way. Similarly, Linda had stable core beliefs that did not change with respect to her experiences in the SE and PT courses. Her own learning shaped her core beliefs, including the use of experiments, daily life applications, microscopic level applications, and the use of why/how questions. Linda's beliefs guided her instruction.

Before any of their high school sessions, both Linda and Barbara had constructivist beliefs. After the first school placement, Barbara's belief that student-centred instruction was fundamental for effective chemistry teaching changed after observing her mentor's instruction. She became convinced that lecturing could also be valuable if done properly. Moreover, her earlier preconceptions about lecturing (the teacher writing information on the board while students copied the same information) dissipated as she witnessed an alternative method; that is, if a teacher paraphrased information rather than leading unilateral dictation, students would be encouraged to understand the concept in order to take accurate notes for themselves. Barbara believed this type of lecture would enhance students’ understanding. Though she maintained some constructivist ideas, she also had traditional beliefs. Therefore, Barbara had inconsistencies in her belief system and transitional beliefs that encompassed both traditional and constructivist beliefs.

Conversely, after the first school placement session, Linda's beliefs did not change and her constructivist beliefs were retained. She criticized the way her mentor taught; specifically, Linda felt her mentor was not teaching conceptual chemistry, rather, too much time was spent solving exercise-style problems that hinder students’ creativity. She mentioned that the methods she observed would not be incorporated into her own teaching methods in the future. Although the two pre-service chemistry teachers had been placed at the same school, one considered her mentor's instruction effective, while the other found it to be inefficient. This may be a result of Linda's attitude during the educational courses. She reflected on what she had learned during the educational courses and formed her own beliefs about what she felt was most important for effective instruction.

At the end of the last school placement, Barbara had traditional and constructivist ideas; therefore, her beliefs were classified as transitional. She stated that the application of student-centred instruction was difficult at schools based on the way her mentors had traditionally taught. Both her teaching practice and observation of her mentor prompted her to believe that lecturing can be used as an effective instructional strategy when daily life examples and analogies were incorporated. Similarly, in the case of Linda, observations of her mentor's instruction and her colleague's instruction during microteaching caused Linda to also believe that lecturing can be effective when teaching chemistry. She had not seen how lecturing could be applied in a student-centred method before this course.

Zeichner and Tabachnick (1981) stated that there is a shift in pre-service teachers’ beliefs from progressivist views to more traditional beliefs once they begin student teaching at schools. While Linda's beliefs were categorized as transitional, she remained more aligned with constructivist methods than Barbara as she intended to use lecturing only in a student-centred format. At the end of the PT course, Barbara felt that knowing the relationships between topics, their sequence, and the time allocated per topic in the curriculum were all important for effective teaching. All are vital components in the knowledge of the curriculum component of PCK. We can infer that the development of Barbara's PCK influenced her beliefs. Linda also mentioned the influence of CoRe plans to sum up the necessary factors for effective chemistry teaching. Since the PT course was formulated to promote pre-service teachers’ PCK by means of CoRe plans and a reflection paper, this influenced participants’ beliefs about chemistry teaching. Veal (2004) also declared this synergistic link between the development of PCK and beliefs.

It is also important to explore factors that shape pre-service teachers’ belief systems during teacher education programs. The present study provided evidence that mentors influence their beliefs. The importance of this shaping has also been reported in the related literature (Boz and Uzuntiryaki, 2006; Crawford, 2007). The present study also demonstrated the importance of microteaching sessions in university as pre-service teachers also learned from their peers. Moreover, the preparation of CoRe and a PT course based on PCK also influenced teachers’ beliefs.

The present study also revealed that pedagogical and methods courses influenced Linda's decision to become a teacher and her core thoughts about teaching. Since she was educated traditionally, she felt that teaching only involved giving information. After taking pedagogical courses in the university, she realized that effective teaching was more than provision. This increased her willingness to become a teacher.

In terms of consistency between the participants’ beliefs and their instruction, Linda could reflect her beliefs in her practical instruction. However, Barbara's instruction did not always mirror her beliefs. Before their lessons, both pre-service teachers had student-centred beliefs regarding chemistry teaching. Though one of the pre-service teachers (Linda) could apply the student-centred instruction effectively, there were some contradictions between Barbara's beliefs and her practice. For example, in some cases she could not garner student replies for her questions, and her instruction shifted back to a more teacher-centred approach. It can be assumed that students’ attitudes towards student-centred instruction will influence the application of this type of instruction. The expectations of students have been reported as one of the factors influencing the inconsistency between teachers’ beliefs and their practice. Another factor that explains the disconnect between teachers’ beliefs and their practice may be the teachers’ self-consciousness of their beliefs and their reflection on their teaching practice (Ernest, 1989). When we compare these two participants, Linda had more constructivist beliefs, her beliefs were more stable, and she could apply them in her lessons. On the other hand, Barbara's beliefs were less stable and in some cases were not reflected in her practice. Since Linda was more aware of her beliefs and reflected more on what she had learned from the pedagogical courses, this might have resulted in the formation of solid core beliefs and more consistency between them and practice.

Barbara thought that lecturing only involved giving information while students took notes. By the time she completed the two practicum courses, she understood that there were more effective ways to lecture.

The present study contributed to the literature by indicating pre-service teachers as change agents in the formation of beliefs. Though the participants were enrolled in the same teacher education program, one of the participants formed more stable core beliefs that were consistent with her practice. Her attitude might have influenced this. Attitude is one of the personal factors influencing people's beliefs according to the TPB (Ajzen, 2005). It could be stated that pre-service teachers’ attitudes during teacher education programs may trigger the formation of stable core beliefs, consistent with educational reform. Other factors influencing pre-service teachers’ beliefs are the use of CoRes, with special mention of PCK knowledge in teacher education programs.

Implications

Although both participants attended the same courses in the program, their attitudes while taking the educational courses were different. Linda reflected critically on what she learned. This in turn influenced the formation of her beliefs during the process. Therefore, it is important to consider pre-service teachers’ attitudes throughout their learning. As constructivists’ theories suggest, they should be cognizant of their learning process and encouraged to reflect on what they learned at all stages of the teacher education program.

This study also revealed the influence of pedagogical and methods courses on pre-service teachers’ perceptions of teaching. If these courses could be taught via methods consistent with reform-based approaches, pre-service teachers would in turn develop beliefs that align with current and future educational reforms.

In the SE course, pre-service chemistry teachers observed their mentors’ instruction by means of CoRe plans. In the PT course, they prepared CoRes and taught their classes based on PCK components. Both courses influenced their beliefs about effective chemistry teaching. Therefore, we suggest the implementation of CoRes based on PCK components in teacher education programs.

Another finding of this study was that pre-service teachers were not familiar with the application of different teaching strategies. This implies that pre-service teachers should be encouraged to incorporate different teaching methods into their lessons, such as drama and role-play in their pedagogical coursework.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Appendix A: observation form

Observer:	Date:
Teacher observed:	Unit observed:
School:	Topic observed:
PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE DIMENSIONS
Knowledge of Learners	Does the teacher elicit students’ prior knowledge? Explain how.
	Does the teacher remember/mention pre-requisite knowledge for learning the new topic? Explain how.
	Does the teacher realize that students’ have misconceptions and/or difficulties related to the topic taught? Explain how.
Knowledge of Instructional Strategy	Does the teacher use any subject-specific strategy? (e.g. 5E, conceptual change, inquiry). Explain how.
	Does the teacher use any topic-specific strategy? (analogies, models, simulations, daily-life examples, demonstration, discussion, questioning). Explain how.
Knowledge of Curriculum	Does the teacher know goals, objectives, and purposes stated in the curriculum? Explain how.
	Does the teacher relate the topic to the other topics in the same grade? Explain how.
	Does the teacher relate the topic to the other topics in the previous and next grades? Explain how.
	Does the teacher relate the topic to the other topics in physics and biology? Explain how.
Knowledge of Assessment	What does the teacher assess? (e.g. knowledge, application of knowledge taught, nature of science understanding, science process skills, etc.) Explain how.
	How does the teacher assess students’ understanding? (e.g. quiz, informal questioning, etc.) Explain how.

Appendix B: content representation (CoRe)

Name: LESSON PLANNING FORM
Chemistry Topic/Content Area:		Grade Level:	Curriculum Objectives to be Addressed:
1. What concepts/big ideas do you intend students to learn?
		Concept#1	Concept#2	Concept#3
2. What do you expect students to understand about this concept and be able to do as a result?
3. Why is it important for students to learn this concept? (Rationale)
4. As a teacher, what should you know about this topic?
5. What difficulties do students typically have about each concept?
6. What misconceptions do students typically have about each concept?
7. Which teaching strategy and what specific activities might be useful for helping students develop an understanding of the concept?
8. In what ways would you assess students’ understanding or confusion about this concept?	Formative Assessment
	Summative Assessment
9. What materials/equipment are needed to teach the lesson?

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Footnote

† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c9rp00022d

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