Yingjie Qian,
Sang Yung Jeong,
Sung-Hyeon Baeck,
Myung-Jong Jin and
Sang Eun Shim
*
Department of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Inha University, 100 Inha-ro, Nam-gu, Incheon 22212, South Korea. E-mail: seshim@inha.ac.kr
First published on 18th October 2019
Porous organic polymers (POPs) with well-distributed and tunable functional groups acting as ligands for specific reactions are promising supports for confining useful novel metals such as Pd, Au, and Pd. Herein, a thiadiazole-containing POP has been successfully synthesized and used for immobilizing Pd species. Pd immobilized inside the micropores (2.3 nm) of the POP material is easily prepared owing to a large amount of the strong anchoring group, thiadiazole, which is intrinsically distributed in the as-prepared POP. The rigid thiadiazole-containing polymer can stabilize the central metal rather than poisoning it. The as-prepared catalyst shows excellent catalytic activity in Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reactions under mild reaction conditions and low catalyst loading. Importantly, the intrinsically distributed thiadiazole ligands can stabilize the Pd moiety, preventing aggregation and leaching, and afford excellent catalytic lifetimes. Consequently, the catalyst can be reused 10 times without a significant loss of its catalytic activity.
In the past few decades, an impressive number of solid supports, including silica matrices, graphene, metal–organic frameworks, metal oxides, and porous organic polymers (POPs) have been developed.4 Among them, POP-based heterogeneous catalysts have attracted significant interest owing to their potential applications in energy and gas storage.5 Recently, these have also emerged as promising materials for anchoring Pd.6 Because of their controllable intrinsic functional groups and nanoporous structures with high stability in organic solvents, POPs are suitable supports in catalysis. Wang et al. reported an efficient heterogeneous catalytic system by anchoring Pd moiety onto imine-based conjugated POPs and demonstrated the possibility of POP applicability in Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction.6 Significantly high turnover frequency value was achieved by Zhu et al. using imine-tagged POP.7 Both representative POP-based immobilized catalysts exhibited excellent catalytic activities in coupling reactions. However, the limited reuse of heterogeneous catalysts still limits the practical use of POP-based heterogeneous catalysts in industrial sector.
Prior studies suggest that introducing foreign elements (N, O, S) to the POP is crucial for enhancing the recycling performance.8 Among the electronegative foreign elements, S, which is a widely known Pd poison owing to the strong interaction between S and Pd, is of considerable interest. However, only a few studies have examined the coupling transformation of sulfur-containing heterogeneous catalysts.8b,9 Zhang et al. reported that the encapsulation of metal inside the cavities of POP was crucial and beneficial in the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reactions in the presence of strong anchoring thiol groups.8b Additionally, a rigid, dangling thiol ligand, where the thiol groups are far apart to entirely bond the Pd species, was developed and it exhibited excellent reusability owing to the rigid framework of the sulfur-containing ligand.9b Inspired by the previous investigations, it was envisioned that the presence of a rigid sulfur-containing anchoring groups that are evenly distributed inside the POP could facilitate the binding of the metal and ligand, thus enhancing the long-term stability of the catalyst. Herein, the synthesis of a thiadiazole-containing POP and its application in Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reactions is described. The synthesized catalyst exhibits the highest catalytic activity in comparison with the previously reported sulfur-containing heterogeneous catalysts. The catalyst also shows high stability over multiple catalytic cycles and easy recyclability.
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Scheme 1 (a) Synthesis of fully conjugated DTE and (b) schematic representation of the synthesis of DTE supported Pd@DTE. |
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Fig. 1 (a) FT-IR spectra of 1,3,5-triethylnylbenzene and DTE and (b) solid-state 13C NMR spectrum of DTE. |
The morphology of Pd@DTE was determined by TEM. Fig. 3a–d shows the images of fresh Pd@DTE at different magnifications. Fig. 3e illustrates the EDS mapping of the composition elements, nitrogen, sulfur, and palladium. Based on the EDS mapping results, DTE is uniformly anchored to Pd moiety. Moreover, the elemental composition of Pd@DTE is close to the theoretical values. Because of the large size of DTE, it is difficult to visualize the distribution of nano-sized Pd.
The nitrogen isotherm was collected at 77 K to illustrate the effect of Pd@DTE fabrication process (Fig. 4). The results for BET surface area (SBET) and total pore volumes (Vtotal) of DTE and Pd@DTE are summarized in Table 1. Both isotherms with type IV hysteresis show micro- and mesoporous characteristics. After the anchoring of Pd moieties, SBET of catalyst 4 decreases from 309 ± 7 to 244 ± 5 m2 g−1. As some of the micropores are filled with Pd moieties during the Pd treatment process, the decrease in micropores can be predicted. Meanwhile, it demonstrates that Pd species are successfully entered into the pores.
Sample | SBET [m2 g−1] | Vtotal [m2 g−1] | Vmeso [m2 g−1] | Vmicro [m2 g−1] | Pore size [nm] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DTE | 309 ± 7 | 0.174 | 0.094 | 0.08 | 2.3 |
Pd@DTE | 244 ± 5 | 0.141 | 0.075 | 0.066 | 2.2 |
2-Bromoanisole was initially selected as a model starting material to optimize the reaction conditions (Table 2). First, the reaction was carried out with 0.1 mol% of catalyst Pd@DTE and 2.0 eq. K2CO3 in different solvents at 50 °C (entries 1–6). Based on the solvent effect, EtOH was found to be the most effective organic solvent. EtOH/H2O was used as the reaction media because this aqueous-organic media allowed the highest transformation performance in most cases. Furthermore, K2CO3, KOH, Na2CO3, KOtBu, and TEA were also tested and K2CO3 was determined to be the most effective base (entries 7–11).
Entry | Base | Catalyst (mol%) | Solvent (total 2 ml) | Yieldb (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
a Reaction conditions: aryl halide (0.4 mmol), boronic acid (0.48 mmol), Pd@DTE (0.1 mol%), base (0.8 mmol), TBAB (0.2 mmol), solvent (2 ml), 50 °C.b GC yield was determined using n-dodecane as an internal standard. | ||||
1 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | H2O | 57.5 |
2 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | EtOH | 42.0 |
3 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | Isopropanol | 11.5 |
4 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | Toluene | 0.7 |
5 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | Propylene glycol | 20.4 |
6 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | DMF | 0.8 |
7 | K2CO3 | 0.1 | EtOH/H2O (1![]() ![]() |
84.1 |
8 | KOH | 0.1 | EtOH/H2O (1![]() ![]() |
65.6 |
9 | KOtBu | 0.1 | EtOH/H2O (1![]() ![]() |
58.1 |
10 | Na2CO3 | 0.1 | EtOH/H2O (1![]() ![]() |
81.9 |
11 | NEt3 | 0.1 | EtOH/H2O (1![]() ![]() |
37.2 |
To maximize the catalytic performance of Pd@DTE, the ratio of H2O to EtOH was varied. Fig. 5 shows the yield as a function of time for Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction of 2-bromoanisole with phenylboronic acid at different volume ratios of H2O to EtOH. Among the various combinations of the reaction media, the highest yield of 97.2% is obtained at H2O:
EtOH of 2. The difference in catalytic activity at different ratios of reaction media allows the modification and enhancement of the catalytic activity.
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Fig. 5 The yield versus time for Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction of 2-bromoanisole with phenylboronic acid at different volume ratio of H2O and EtOH at 50 °C. |
The Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reactions of aryl halides with aryl boronic acid were carried out under the optimized reaction conditions (Table 3). The sterically hindered 2,5-dibromotoluene and deactivated 4-bromophenol, 2-bromoanisole, and 4-bromoanisole show good catalytic activities in 6 h (entries 1–5). Activated compounds such as 4-suitable, 4-bromobenzene, 4-bromobenzonitrile, and 2-bromonitrobenzene exhibit excellent performances (entries 6–9). The sterically hindered 3-bromo-4-methyl acetophenone shows excellent results because of the existence of an activating acetophenone moiety in the molecular structure (entry 10).
Entry | Aryl halide | Product | Time (h) | Yieldb (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
a Reaction conditions: aryl halide (1 mmol), arylboronic acid (1.5 mmol), Pd@DTE (0.1 mol%), K2CO3 (2.0 mmol), TBAB (0.5 mmol), H2O (2.0 ml), EtOH (2.0 ml), 50 °C.b GC yield was determined using n-dodecane as an internal standard. | ||||
1 | ![]() |
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6 | 94.2 |
2 | ![]() |
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4 | 98.4 |
3 | ![]() |
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4 | 99.2 |
4 | ![]() |
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4 | 98.1 |
5 | ![]() |
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6 | 97.8 |
6 | ![]() |
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1 | 100 |
7 | ![]() |
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1 | 100 |
8 | ![]() |
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4 | 100 |
9 | ![]() |
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1 | 100 |
10 | ![]() |
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1 | 100 |
Encouraged by the results of these coupling reactions, some hetero halides and severely sterically hindered aryl halides were also investigated (Table 4). Coupling of the heteroaryl structure is more difficult than aryl halides owing to presence of elements such as nitrogen or sulfur, which deactivate the catalyst. Therefore, the investigation of the performance of heteroaryls is also important. 2-Bromothiophene shows excellent yield in 20 h (entry 1). Additionally, 2-bromo-3-methylpyridine, 2-bromopyridine, and 3-bromopyridine can couple in good to excellent yields at 50 °C in 20 h (entries 2–4). The excellent catalytic activity of Pd@DTE is also supported by the coupling of 2,5-dibromopyridine, 2,5-dibromothiophene, 2-bromo-3-aminopyridine, and mesitylene bromide in good yields (entries 5–8).
Entry | Aryl halide | Product | Time (h) | Yieldb (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
a Reaction conditions: aryl halide (1 mmol), arylboronic acid (1.5 mmol), Pd@DTE (0.1 mol%), K2CO3 (2.0 mmol), TBAB (0.5 mmol), H2O (2.0 ml), EtOH (2.0 ml), 50 °C.b GC yield was determined using n-dodecane as an internal standard.c The reaction was carried out at 75 °C. | ||||
1 | ![]() |
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20 | 100 |
2 | ![]() |
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20 | 91 |
3 | ![]() |
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20 | 97.2 |
4 | ![]() |
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20 | 96.9 |
5c | ![]() |
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20 | 89.3 |
6c | ![]() |
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20 | 92 |
7c | ![]() |
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20 | 93 |
8c | ![]() |
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20 | 87 |
The reusability of the catalyst is one of the most important features of an attractive heterogeneous catalyst. The recycling of Pd@DTE was examined in the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling of 4-iodobenzene with phenylboronic acid (Table 5) The catalytic system exhibits excellent reusability even after 10 cycles of reuse, which is an outstanding result among the sulfur-containing heterogeneous catalysts (Table 6). The high stability of the rigid sulfur-containing Pd@DTE catalysts in the reaction media is owing to the robust molecular structure with strong interaction between the Pd moiety and thiadiazole-containing framework.
Entry | Time (h) | Yieldb (%) |
---|---|---|
a Reaction conditions: aryl halide (1 mmol), arylboronic acid (1.5 mmol), Pd@DTE (0.1 mol%), K2CO3 (2.0 mmol), TBAB (0.5 mmol), H2O (2.0 ml), EtOH (2.0 ml), 50 °C.b GC yield was determined using n-dodecane as an internal standard. | ||
1st batch | 1 | 100 |
2nd batch | 1 | 100 |
3rd batch | 1 | 99.1 |
4th batch | 1 | 98.5 |
5th batch | 1 | 99.2 |
6th batch | 1 | 98.2 |
7th batch | 1 | 98 |
8th batch | 1 | 98.7 |
9th batch | 1 | 98.4 |
10th batch | 1 | 97.6 |
Catalyst | Solvent | Temp. (°C) | Loading (mol%) | Time (h) | Yield (%) | Substrate | Number of cycles & Substrate | TOF | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pd@DTE | Water & ethanol | 50 | 0.1 | 4 | 100 | ![]() |
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250 | This work |
PdNPs@COF | Water & DMF | 50 | 0.1 | 3 | 82.9 | ![]() |
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276 | 8b |
P.SBA-15SHPd | Ethanol | 60 | 0.12 | 3 | 80 | ![]() |
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222 | 9a |
ZrDMTD-Pd | Ethanol | 80 | 1 | 5 | 86 | ![]() |
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17.2 | 9b |
Pd–P/polythiophene | Water & ethanol | RT | 1 | 24 | 87 | ![]() |
N/A | 4 | 9c |
Pd@CB-PN | Water | RT | 5 | 2 | 100 | ![]() |
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10 | 9d |
To determine whether Pd@DTE is working in a heterogeneous manner, a hot-filtration test was carried out in the Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction of 2-bromoanisole with phenylboronic acid at 100 °C (Fig. 6). During the reaction, the heterogeneous catalyst was separated by filtration after 0.1 h (conversion 75%); the reaction was carried out for a further 1 h. The GC analysis showed that the supernatant has no catalytic activity. ICP-OES analysis of the supernatant confirms that Pd is absent in the solution. These results suggested that no leaching of Pd species takes place during the catalysis and demonstrated the effectiveness of the Pd@DTE in confining Pd moiety originated from the intrinsic features of DTE, including evenly distributed strong thiadiazole ligand and microporous structure.
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Fig. 6 Hot filtration experiments. Suzuki–Miyaura coupling reaction of 2-bromoanisole with phenylboronic acid was carried out at 100 °C. |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 |