Yilong Yana,
Ziwen Du*a,
Liqiu Zhang*a,
Li Fenga,
Dezhi Suna,
Yan Danga,
Dawn E. Holmesb and
Jessica A. Smithc
aBeijing Key Laboratory for Source Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control and Eco-remediation, College of Environmental Science & Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, 35 Tsinghua East Road, Beijing 100083, China. E-mail: ziwendu@bjfu.edu.cn; zhangliqiu@163.com; zhangliqiu@bjfu.edu.cn
bDepartment of Physical and Biological Sciences, Western New England University, 1215 Wilbraham Road, Springfield, Massachusetts 01119, USA
cDepartment of Biomolecular Sciences, Central Connecticut State University, 1615 Stanley Street, New Britain, CT 06050, USA
First published on 19th September 2019
While studies have shown that anaerobic co-digestion of chicken manure (CM) and corn stover (CS) is an efficient method to treat these agricultural wastes, the microbial ecology of these systems and optimal parameters for the digestion process are yet to be determined. In this study, the effects of different initial substrate concentrations and CS:
CM mixture ratios on co-digestion and microbial community structure were evaluated. Results demonstrated that both the highest cumulative methane yields and methane production rates were obtained from reactors with a CS
:
CM ratio of 1
:
1 during hemi-solid-state anaerobic digestion (HSS-AD). Cumulative methane yields and methane production rates were 24.8% and 42% lower in solid-state anaerobic digestion (SS-AD) reactors using the same CS
:
CM ratios. Analysis of microbial community structures revealed that cellulolytic bacteria and a diversity of syntrophic microorganisms capable of direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) and hydrogen interspecies transfer (HIT) were enriched in the best-performing reactors. Methanosarcina species also dominated during HSS-AD, and their presence was positively correlated with methane production in the reactors.
To minimize these inhibitory factors and improve biogas yields, co-digestion of both of these substrates is recommended.6 While studies have already shown that CS:
CM co-digestion strategies improve reactor performance,7 use of large-scale anaerobic digesters has not been frequently implemented due to low energy production and poor economic viability. This limited application is largely because various operating conditions and the effects they have on microbial ecology have not yet been adequately studied.
The type of AD applied often depends on the percentage of total solids (TS) in the waste to be treated. Wet state anaerobic digestion (WS-AD) is used for waste with TS content <10%, hemi-solid-state anaerobic digestion (HSS-AD) is used for waste with TS content between 10–15%, and solid-state anaerobic digestion (SS-AD) is used for waste with TS content >15%. While WS-AD is generally used for treatment of animal manure, HSS-AD and SS-AD are more effective during treatment of complex materials such as lignocellulosic crop residue8 and are likely to be more compatible with co-digestion feedstocks. Other advantages of HSS-AD and SS-AD include higher volumetric methane output, enhanced nutrient balance, sufficient buffer capacity, smaller reactor requirements, and lower energy input and water addition.9
Another major factor that must be taken into consideration when optimizing AD is the microbial ecology of the system. Successful AD relies on a diverse microbial consortium working together to convert complex organic matter into methane using a characteristic four-step process: hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis.10 Hydrolysis and acidogenesis lead to rapid production of fatty acids and alcohols, and the robust microbes involved in these reactions can survive a wide range of environmental conditions. Further conversion of fatty acids and alcohols relies on interspecies electron transfer (IET) between syntrophic bacteria and methanogens. IET via hydrogen/formate interspecies electron transfer (HFIT) has been recognized as the conventional route of biogas formation for several decades.11–13 A more recently discovered form of IET is direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET), in which syntrophic partners forge biological extracellular protein connections to exchange electrons.14–18 IET often occurs relatively slowly and is extremely sensitive to operating conditions.10,11 Therefore, understanding how to promote these syntrophic interactions, especially in anaerobic digesters with high organic loads, is of great interest to the scientific community.15
Although many studies have shown that supplementation of conductive materials such as granular activated carbon,19 biochar,20 and carbon cloth21 can enhance IET during AD,22–25 studies to determine how to enhance syntrophic metabolism by simply adjusting operational parameters are lacking. Evidence does suggest that altering initial substrate concentrations (ISC) based on total solid content affects IET. For example, extremely high solid content during AD may cause volatile fatty acids (VFAs), such as propionate or butyrate, to accumulate.26,27 Large quantities of VFAs are toxic to methanogens and will lead to high hydrogen partial pressures which inhibit hydrogen interspecies transfer (HIT).28 In addition, data regarding bacterial and methanogenic communities enriched during co-digestion of CS and CM is needed as it will help provide insight into mechanisms of IET that might be occurring in the reactors. This information can then be used to enhance the co-digestion process. For example, studies have shown that co-digestion of CM with microalgae stimulates growth of Methanothrix and Methanosarcina species, both organisms known to participate in DIET.29
The discovery of optimal operational conditions for treatment of agricultural wastes with high TS content, and more importantly, the elucidation of microbial interactions key to this process, are essential for future large-scale application. Therefore, reactors were assembled with a variety of ISC (based on total solid content) and CS:
CM mixture ratios to identify which operational parameters yielded the best results. Bacterial and archaeal communities were also characterized and relationships between community structure, methane production, ISC, and mixture ratios were identified.
The inoculum used in this study was effluent from the Deqingyuan Ecological Farm full-scale mesophilic liquid anaerobic digester fed with chicken manure (operated by Helee Bio-Energy Co. Ltd, Beijing, China). The effluent was incubated anaerobically at 37 ± 0.2 °C for 14 days to minimize residual biodegradable organic matter before being inoculated into digesters under mesophilic conditions. Detailed characteristics of substrates and inoculum are summarized in the ESI.†
Batch anaerobic digestion experiments were carried out in triplicate using 2 L glass bottles with a working volume of 1 L, and were placed in thermostatic water baths under mesophilic conditions (37 ± 0.2 °C). Both feedstocks were mixed with Milli-Q water (Millipore, USA) and inoculum to obtain a mixture with a total solids content of 10.4–10.7% for HSS-AD, and 17.3–17.8% for SS-AD. The feedstock to inoculum (F/I) ratio of each digester was 3, based on volatile solids (VS). Based on results from a previous report,7 co-digestion of corn stover and chicken manure was applied at ratios of 3:
1 and 1
:
1 (based on VS) due to higher biodegradability and synergistic effects. The corresponding feedstock carbon to nitrogen (C/N) ratios were 25.7 for CS
:
CM of 3
:
1 and 16.8 for CS
:
CM of 1
:
1, which were both in the preferred C/N range of 15–30.7 Each digester was manually shaken once a day for about 2 min. To monitor the digestion process, 40 mL of digestate from each digester was sampled anaerobically every 5 days (Thermo Scientific, USA). Biogas samples were taken every day during the co-digestion process with 3 L gas collection bags (E-Switch, China).
In addition to higher overall methane production, the HSS-AD reactors started producing methane early in the digestion process, with the highest daily methane yields being generated around day 7 (Fig. 1B). Conversely, the SS-AD reactors did not show strong start-up performance, and overall daily methane yields never exceeded 10.0 mL per g VSadded. Both daily methane yields and methane content during the start-up period were lowest in the SS3:1 reactors (Fig. 1B and ESI Fig. S1†), and total cumulative methane was only 202.6 ± 13.5 mL per g VSadded in these reactors (Fig. 1A). While the 3:
1 feedstock clearly hindered the start-up period in the SS-AD reactors, it did not appear to impact the start-up period in the HSS-AD reactors (Fig. 1A). These results suggest that hydrolysis/acidification was not a limiting factor in HSS-AD reactors.
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Fig. 2 Change in (A) VFAs, (B) FAN, (C) and TAN during anaerobic co-digestion with different mixture ratios and ISCs. Error bars represent standard deviations from triplicate samples. |
Two large methane peaks were produced in the HSS-AD reactors over the course of the experiment (Fig. 1B). The first large peak occurred between days 5–10, which was also when VFA concentrations were highest (Fig. 2A), and the second peak occurred between days 19–21 for HSS1:1 reactors and days 27–29 for HSS3:1 reactors when VFAs dropped below 1107 mg L−1 and 2350 mg L−1, respectively. These peaks may have corresponded with shifts in the dominant methanogenic communities over time. Early in the experiment, methanogens were likely to be using hydrogen generated by fermentative bacteria. These hydrogenotrophic methanogens initially kept H2 concentrations below the thermodynamic threshold,38–40 however, in the organically rich HSS-AD reactors, H2 production eventually outpaced H2 consumption and H2 producing pathways are not thermodynamically favorable at high H2 concentrations.41
Therefore, fermentative microorganisms tend to shift their metabolism from H2 producing pathways to VFA (i.e. propionate, butyrate, acetate) producing pathways when H2 concentrations are high.41–44 Homoacetogenesis is also favored over hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis at elevated hydrogen partial pressures.45 Acetoclastic methanogens can then directly utilize acetate as a substrate for methanogenesis,46 and VFAs like propionate and butyrate can serve as electron donors for syntrophic partnerships between bacteria and methanogens.47–49 Evidence supporting the theory that hydrogenotrophic methanogens were dominant when the first peak was formed comes from the finding that VFAs were most abundant during this period as methanogens were not yet able to convert these compounds to methane. During the second peak, on the other hand, VFA concentrations were low because acetoclastic methanogens and methanogens that could participate in DIET became more active. Further investigations into microbial community structure in the HSS-AD reactors during the first and second methane peaks are warranted.
Free ammonia nitrogen concentrations were highest in SS-AD reactors with CS:
CM ratios of 1
:
1 (Fig. 2B), with concentrations remaining well above 1000–2000 mg L−1 throughout the digestion process. The highest TAN was also observed using this operating parameter (Fig. 2C). High FAN and TAN negatively impact methanogenesis and are known to be major inhibitors of anaerobic digestion.50,51 In fact, FAN concentrations >1110 mg L−1 have been shown to completely inhibit anaerobic systems.52 This explains why the SS1:1 reactors produced the lowest cumulative methane yields (Fig. 1A). FAN remained ≤1000 mg L−1 in the other three reactor conditions, indicating that ammonia concentrations did not adversely affect metabolic activity in these digesters (Fig. 2B).
Removal of VS and methane conversion rates also varied significantly between the different reactor conditions (Fig. 3). Significantly higher proportions (p < 0.01) of VS were removed in HSS1:1 (60.1 ± 2.4%) and HSS3:1 (59.0 ± 1.4%) reactors than in SS1:1 (51.4 ± 0.8%) and SS3:1 (56.2 ± 2.0%) reactors. Higher methane conversion rates were also observed in HSS1:1 (372.1 ± 27.7 mLmethane per g VSremoved) and HSS3:1 (370.6 ± 19.3 mLmethane per g VSremoved) reactors than in SS1:1 (327.3 ± 6.1 mLmethane per g VSremoved) and SS3:1 (360.2 ± 24.9 mLmethane per g VSremoved) reactors (Fig. 3). Overall, HSS-AD reactors provided with a CS:
CM ratio of 1
:
1 performed best with the highest cumulative methane yields and methane production rates.
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Fig. 3 Removal of volatile solids (VS) and methane conversion in anaerobic co-digestion using different mixture ratios and ISCs. Error bars represent standard deviations from triplicate samples. |
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Fig. 4 Relative distribution of (A) bacterial and (B) archaeal 16S rRNA gene sequences at the genus level. Sequences that accounted for less than 1.0% of the population were classified as “Others”. |
Ercella and Clostridium were the most abundant genera in both of the well-performing HSS-AD reactors and SS3:1 (Fig. 4A). Ercella and Clostridium are members of the Clostridiales order which plays many roles in the anaerobic digestion process, including high-rates of cellulose hydrolysis, protein catabolism, and acidogenesis leading to production of short-chain fatty acids, CO2, and H2.53 Although both of these genera are primarily known for their fermentative metabolisms, some Clostridium species are capable of extracellular electron transfer to such electron acceptors as Fe(III), sulfur, and current-harvesting electrodes54–58 and Ercella can transfer electrons to insoluble sulfur compounds.58
The presence of Clostridium and Syntrophomonas species has been previously reported to be an indicator of AD stability.59,60 This is consistent with the high abundance of Clostridium and Syntrophomonas (p < 0.01) in HSS-AD communities, and the positive correlation between their abundance and cumulative methane production (p < 0.01, R2 = 0.78) (Fig. 1A, and 4A). This correlation between methane production and abundance of these bacteria can be explained by the fact that both of these genera have been shown to form syntrophic partnerships with methanogens.61 In addition to their cooperative growth with methanogens via HFIT,61 it is also possible that these species are capable of DIET to a methanogenic partner.
There are two hallmarks of a bacterium's capacity for DIET, the first is the ability to transfer electrons across the cell membrane to an extracellular electron acceptor (i.e. another microorganism),62,63 and the second is the presence of Geobacter-like type IV pilin proteins. Geobacter pili contain aromatic amino acids that are located at key positions within the protein chain64 and account for ≥9% of the amino acid residues with small gaps between them.65,66 Although the role of pili in extracellular electron transfer is under debate, pili from all of the bacteria known to be capable of DIET thus far have these characteristics.65,66 In fact, recent identification of a Geobacter-like pilin protein in Syntrophus acetitrophicus led to the discovery that this species, once thought to only be capable of HFIT,67,68 also has the capacity for DIET.66 A number of genomes from Clostridiales species known to participate in HFIT,61 including Syntrophomonas, also have genes coding for Geobacter-like pili,66 suggesting that these species might also be capable of DIET. Support for this comes from the finding that Syntrophomonas species were likely to be participating in DIET in anaerobic digesters supplemented with ferroferric oxide.69
In addition, both Ercella and Clostridium species are able to transfer electrons outside of the cell suggesting that it is possible that these genera were not only providing electrons to methanogens through fermentative by-products, but may have also been participating in DIET.
Pelobacter species were also significantly enriched in HSS-AD reactors (9.1% of total community in HSS3:1 and 5.6% in HSS1:1). However, sequences from this genus were barely detected in SS-AD reactors (0.02% of total community in SS3:1 and 0.5% in SS1:1). Pelobacter has been shown to grow syntrophically with methanogens via HFIT,70–72 but several species from this genus also have traits that are characteristic of bacteria with the capacity for DIET. For example, Pelobacter species are capable of electron transfer to Fe(III) and S0,73–75 and have Geobacter-like type IV pili.76
Species from the genus Sporanaerobacter were also significant members of all four digesters, but had the highest abundance in SS1:1 (14.8%). Sporanaerobacter metabolize proteins and carbohydrates with reduction of elemental sulfur, an extracellular electron acceptor.77 In a previous study, Sporanaerobacter species were enriched in anaerobic digesters supplemented with conductive carbon cloth, and were likely participating in DIET with Methanosarcina species.77,78
Herbivorax and Cellulosibacter, both genera with cellulolytic metabolisms,79,80 were enriched in HSS-AD reactors (Fig. 4). Their abundance was significantly lower in SS-AD reactors suggesting that their scarcity could be linked to impairment of lignocellulose degradation and lower methane production rates.
Overall, results from the bacterial community analysis suggest that a variety of syntrophic bacteria involved in both HFIT and/or DIET were significantly (p < 0.05) enriched in HSS-AD reactors, signifying that syntrophic–methanogenic associations were favored during HSS-AD.
Methanosarcina species are mixotrophic methanogens that are able to metabolize acetate, hydrogen, and C1 compounds,83 and along with Methanothrix (formerly Methanosaeta), are some of the few methanogens shown to be capable of DIET in culture studies.71 Methanothrix are obligate acetoclastic methanogens, and accounted for <4.2% of the overall archaeal community within all digesters (Fig. 4B). While high acetate concentrations in the reactors should have favored growth of both Methanosarcina and Methanothrix,84–86 Methanothrix are sensitive to high concentrations of VFAs.87,88 Methanosarcina, on the other hand, are typically able to survive exposure to environmental stressors, such as high VFA or FAN concentrations, because they can aggregate to form irregular clumps that protect them from harsh environmental conditions.88,89
Strictly hydrogenotrophic Methanoculleus species predominated SS1:1 reactor archaeal communities (50.2%) (Fig. 4B). Methanoculleus abundance was positively correlated with concentrations of FAN and TAN (P < 0.01, R2 = 0.78) (Fig. 2B, C, and 4B), and negatively correlated with cumulative methane production (P < 0.01, R2 = −0.84) (Fig. 1A, and 4B). This is consistent with reports that Methanoculleus tend to dominate reactors with high concentrations of VFAs and ammonia (Fig. 2).60,90 Sequences from other hydrogenotrophic methanogenic genera, including Methanospaerula and Candidatus-Methanoplasma, were also found in all of the digesters (Fig. 4B). However, their abundance was low, indicating that these hydrogenotrophic methanogens played a lesser role.
It is clear that most of the methanogenic activity detected in efficiently operating reactors (HSS3:1, HSS1:1, SS3:1) could be attributed to Methanosarcina. Not only is this genus able to survive harsh conditions found in anaerobic digesters with high organic loads, it is also capable of syntrophic growth with syntrophic bacteria through both HFIT and DIET72,91 and can use a variety of fermentative products as substrates for methanogenesis (acetate, H2/CO2, formate, C1 compounds).83
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Fig. 6 Redundancy analysis triplot ordination diagram using the archaeal community at the genus level (archaeal genera fitting greater than 90% were displayed). |
The presence of such fermentative genera as Clostridium, Gallicola, and Garciella, were also significantly influenced by operational parameters and their presence appeared to promote methanogenesis (Fig. 5). In contrast, the relative abundance of sequences from Caldicoprobacter and Tissierella were positively correlated with ISC and negatively correlated with mixture ratio (Fig. 5), suggesting that these bacteria are likely favored in digesters with high ammonia concentrations (SS1:1). This is consistent with previous reports that showed that Caldicoprobacter and Tissierella were dominant in anaerobic digesters with excess ammonia or alkaline conditions.92,93
ISC and mixture ratio also directly influenced archaeal community structure (Fig. 6). For example, Methanoculleus and Methanosphaerula showed a significant (P < 0.01) positive correlation with ISC, and were clustered closely with the SS1:1 sample, which were parameters that yielded the lowest methane productions. The high prevalence of obligate hydrogenotrophic methanogens in SS1:1 reactors suggests that hydrogen was the main electron carrier between bacteria and methanogens.84 In this syntrophic scenario, the hydrogen partial pressure must typically be kept lower than 10−5 atm by hydrogen consumers, and the value of Gibbs free energy discharge of the entire methanogenic process is thereafter negative, making syntrophic methanogenesis thermodynamically feasible.94 However, in SS1:1 reactors, excess FAN likely inhibited hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis, and diffusion limitations may have also resulted in local hydrogen accumulation, all of which may cause a significant increase of hydrogen partial pressure in these reactors, further inhibiting the syntrophic metabolism.51,84,95
Methanosarcina showed a significant (P < 0.01) positive correlation with cumulative methane production, and was negatively correlated with ISC (Fig. 6). The metabolic plasticity and morphological characteristics of Methanosarcina are likely to give them a competitive advantage in these systems. They can utilize DIET for methane production when conditions (i.e. high ammonia concentrations) are inhibitory for hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis.95
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available: Characterization of substrates and inoculum (Table S1); daily methane content of biogas in digesters containing different mixture ratios and ISCs. Error bars represent standard deviations from triplicate samples (Fig. S1). See DOI: 10.1039/c9ra05556h |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2019 |