Naohiro Terasawa* and
Kinji Asaka
Inorganic Functional Material Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-8-31 Midorigaoka, Ikeda, Osaka 563-8577, Japan. E-mail: terasawa-naohiro@aist.go.jp
First published on 15th May 2018
This paper describes the effect of ethylene glycol on the performance of actuators with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(4-styrenesulfonate)/vapor-grown carbon fiber/ionic liquid/ethylene glycol (PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG) structures. These devices exhibit superior strain performances compared to devices using PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL. EG is assumed to assist in the formation of three-dimensional conducting networks between small PEDOT:PSS domains. This is because it helps to remove insulating PSS from the surface of the PEDOT/PSS grains and facilitates the crystallization of PEDOT. Therefore, EG helps to increase the specific capacitance, strain, and maximum generated stress compared to the values obtained using a PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuator. Therefore, these new, flexible, and robust films may have significant potential for their use as actuator materials in wearable energy conversion devices. A double-layer charging kinetic model was developed to account for the oxidation and reduction reactions of PEDOT:PSS, and this model is similar to that proposed for PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG actuators. This model was successfully applied to simulate the frequency-dependent displacement responses of the actuators.
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), a polythiophene derivative, is considered to be the best CP currently available with regard to electrical conductivity, processability, and stability.6 Thus, it is produced on a commercial scale and used in multiple applications, such as solid electrolyte capacitors, light emitting diodes, antistatic coatings, organic solar cells, and organic field-effect transistors.6 PEDOT doped with poly(4-styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) is one of the most important CPs because it can be dispersed in water in the form of colloidal particles. Moreover, this material has superior mechanical properties, thermal stability, and a tunable conductivity (0.1–3000 S cm−1).7,8 Therefore, it has been employed in many organic or plastic electronic/optical devices.9–12 In other studies, PEDOT:PSS-based electrodes have been analyzed,13–15 and the conversion of electrical to mechanical energy has been demonstrated using these devices.16,17
In recent years, researchers have reported on the improved conductivity of thin coatings and films by adding some organic solvents, such as ethylene glycol (EG), dimethyl sulfoxide, and sorbitol, to PEDOT/PSS aqueous dispersion.18–21 PEDOT/PSS microfibers with conductivity as high as 467 S cm−1, obtained by exploiting the solvent effect of EG, were first reported by Okuzaki et al..22 The effects of EG treatment on the electrical conductivity, structure, carrier transport properties, and mechanical properties of PEDOT/PSS microfibers have been investigated. EG helps to remove insulating PSS from the surface of PEDOT/PSS grains and helps to crystallize PEDOT, thus resulting in the formation of large numbers of highly conductive grains that improve charge carrier transport in the microfibers.
Soft materials that can convert electrical energy into mechanical energy have been studied extensively in recent years. Such materials can be used in a wide range of applications such as robotics, tactile and optical displays, prosthetic devices, medical devices, and microelectromechanical systems.23 Low-voltage electroactive polymer (EAP)-based actuators with rapid response are particularly beneficial in this sense because they can be employed as artificial muscle-like actuators in biomedical and human-affinity applications.24,25 We previously reported26–28 on the first dry actuator fabricated with a “bucky gel”,29 which is a gelatinous ionic-liquid (IL)-containing single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) at room temperature. This actuator was built with a bimorph configuration, in which a polymer-supported IL electrolyte layer is placed between two polymer-supported bucky-gel electrode layers. This design facilitates rapid device operation and increases device lifespan in air at low applied voltages. Furthermore, ILs are suitable for use in quick-response actuators and devices requiring high electrochemical stability owing to their favorable characteristics, such as intrinsically low volatility, high ionic conductivity, and wide potential window.30 In addition, we found that the electromechanical and electrochemical properties of these actuators depend on the specific IL, nanocarbon, and polymer materials employed.28,31–34
There are two main types of electrochemical capacitors (ECs): faradaic capacitors (FCs) and electrostatic double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). EDLCs are based on electrode materials that are not electrochemically active, which may include carbon particles. Therefore, during both charging and discharging, there are no electrochemical reactions at the electrode, although the electrode/electrolyte interface accumulates a physical charge. In contrast, FCs are able to store charge during both discharge and charge operations, and employ electrochemically active substances as electrodes, including metal oxides.7,35,36 There are basic criteria for both types, such as the incorporation of extremely conductive electrode materials (so as to ensure high capacitance), an optimal distribution of pore sizes, and a significant surface area. In addition, it is also possible to fabricate a unit that simultaneously exhibits both FC and EDLC characteristics, with one of the two being the primary mechanism, known as a hybrid capacitor.37
In a previous study, we developed a film casting method to fabricate hybrid EDLC–FC PEDOT:PSS actuators that incorporate VGCFs or SWCNTs to further exploit the synergistic effects between nanotubes and PEDOT:PSS.38,39 The strain performance of the resulting PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuators was better than that of PEDOT:PSS/SWCNT/IL and PVdF(HFP)/VGCF/IL actuators owing to the differences in their synergistic effects.
In the present study, we investigate the effect of EG on actuators with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(4-styrenesulfonate)/vapor-grown carbon fiber/ionic liquid/ethylene glycol (PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG) structures. These devices show superior strain performances compared to the devices that use PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL.
Fig. 1 Configuration of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrode actuator, and the molecular structures of the corresponding ILs and polymers. |
ε = 2dδ/(L2 + δ2). | (1) |
PEDOT:PSS + δEMI+ + δe = (PEDOT:PSS−)δ(EMI+)δ + (1 − δ)PEDOT:PSS (0 < δ < 1) | (2) |
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the electrical conduction mechanism of (a) PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4] and (b) PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes. |
The electrical conductivities of electrode layers comprising PEDOT:PSS, VGCFs, EG, and an IL are summarized in Table 2. The PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes (14–22 cm−1) have significantly higher conductivities than the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4] electrodes (11 S cm−1), thus suggesting that EG increased the conductivity. It is considered that PEDOT:PSS is actually a formation of 3-D crystal or a formation of parallel and linear structure formation.19 The PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes have significantly higher conductivities than the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3]/EG electrodes, therefore, the conductivity is dependent on IL anion species. This can be ascribed to the removal of insulating PSS from the surface of PEDOT/PSS grains and the crystallization of PEDOT, thus resulting in the formation of large numbers of highly conductive grains that improve charge carrier transport (Fig. 2).22,46,47 However, the electrical conductivities of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3]/EG electrodes were similar to those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes, which can be ascribed to the minimal effect of EG.
The measured strain values of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrode and the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL electrode using EMI[CF3SO3] as the IL are plotted against the frequency of the applied triangular voltage (±2 V) in Fig. 3. As the strain depends on the measurement frequency, the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrode and the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL electrode using EMI[BF4] show identical general trends. It can be observed that the strain of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG actuator is similar to that of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuator across the frequency range of 0.05–100 Hz, while the strain of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG actuator is larger than that of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuator across the frequency range of 0.005–0.05 Hz. It is considered that EG effects on the strain of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuator. This is because the C values of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrodes were higher than those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL electrodes across the frequency range of 0.005–0.05 Hz.
The maximum strain values of the four actuators using two different ILs are presented in Table 3. The strains of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3]/EG electrodes (1.18–1.28%) are 1.5–1.7 times greater than those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3] electrodes (0.77%). Furthermore, the strains of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes are greater than those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4] electrodes. The maximum strains of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3]/EG electrodes are greater than those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes, therefore, the strain is dependent on IL anion species. Thus, both EDLC and FC mechanisms can be assumed to be responsible for the high specific capacitance of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL, with the latter mechanism being dominant. As noted above, the PEDOT:PSS polymer in the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuator plays two roles (the base polymer and the FC electrode), thus allowing the device to generate strain that is useful for real-world applications. The result can be attributed to the removal of insulating PSS from the surface of the PEDOT/PSS grains and the crystallization of PEDOT, thus leading to an increase in the specific capacitances of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG across the frequency range of 0.005–0.05 Hz.22
The stress–strain curve for the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG 30% and PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4] electrodes are shown in Fig. S1.† It is considered that there is effect of EG.46 The Young's moduli of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrodes were similar to those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL electrodes (Table 4). The result can be ascribed to small effect of EG. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs (magnification: 300000×) of (a) PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4] and (b) PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes is shown in Fig. 4. These results suggest that a network of open mesopores is formed in the electrodes by highly entangled VGCFs.34
Fig. 4 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs (magnification: 300000×) of (a) PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4] and (b) PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG electrodes. |
Finally, the maximum stress values (σ) generated during actuation were calculated according to Hooke's law (σ = Y × εmax) using the values of maximum strain (εmax) and Young's modulus (Y) (Table 5).
The σ values of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3]/EG actuators were greater than those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[BF4]/EG actuators, therefore, the σ value is dependent on IL anion species. The two σ values of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3]/EG actuators were ∼1.6 to ∼1.8 times greater than those of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/EMI[CF3SO3] actuators. Thus, the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL actuators could generate the maximum stress values suitable for real-world applications, such as tactile displays.
Previously, we proposed a mechanism for the bending of a conventional PVdF(HFP)/SWCNT/IL actuator, according to which the application of voltage between the two electrode layers leads to the transfer of cations and anions from the gel electrolyte layer to the cathode and anode layers, respectively. This results in the formation of an electric double layer with negatively and positively charged nanotubes; the associated ion transport causes the cathode layer to swell and the anode layer to shrink.27,33,48 Furthermore, in the present work, the anode layer swelled and expanded owing to ion migration. Therefore, we propose that the swelling and expansion of the anode layer according to the FC mechanism along with the EDLC mechanism contribute to actuator motion at low frequencies. In other words, ion transport causes the cathode layer to swell in addition to causing the anode layer to shrink. Therefore, the actuator bends toward the anode side (Fig. S2†).
In a previous study,22 ILs performed very well as permanent conductivity enhancers in PEDOT:PSS films. EG helps with the formation of three-dimensional conducting networks between smaller PEDOT:PSS domains owing to the removal of insulating PSS from the surface of the PEDOT/PSS grains and crystallization of PEDOT, thus resulting in increased specific capacitances of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrode (Fig. 2). Based on these results, the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrodes were observed to have higher C values than the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL electrodes in the low frequency range of 0.005–0.05 Hz.
In a previous study,28 we investigated the voltage–current and voltage–displacement characteristics of a bucky-gel actuator under the application of a triangular waveform voltage to the device at various frequencies. We proposed an electrochemical equivalent circuit model to quantitatively describe the frequency dependence of the generated strain. This model, comprising the combined resistance and capacitance of the electrode layer and the combined resistance of the electrolyte layer, allowed us to predict the time constant of the response and the low-frequency limit of the strain. In the present study, a similar double-layer charging kinetic model with the EDLC and FC mechanisms has been employed to successfully predict variations in the frequency-dependent displacement in the case of the PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL/EG electrode actuators (see ESI† for details).
The flexible and robust films using the effects of EG combined with PEDOT:PSS/VGCF/IL presented in this work are promising for their applications as electrode materials in wearable energy conversion devices. The same concept can be employed to develop other PEDOT-based electrochemical materials for their use in energy conversion applications.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c8ra02714e |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2018 |