Biogeochemical cycles for combining chemical knowledge and ESD issues in Greek secondary schools part I: designing the didactic materials

Abstract

Biogeochemical cycles support all anthropogenic activities and are affected by them, therefore they are intricately interlinked with global environmental and socioeconomic issues. Elements of these cycles that are already included in the science/chemical curriculum and textbooks intended for formal education in Greek secondary schools were thoroughly reviewed and on the basis of the gaps and needs identified new didactic materials were produced. The didactic materials were designed in order to enhance the comprehension of the biogeochemical cycles (of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur) and include educational content and guidance to achieve ESD goals including strengthening of students' environmentally-friendly attitudes and commitment towards sustainability. These materials clarify the function of the cycles supplementing chemical knowledge and scientific information relevant to the real world phenomena and conditions (e.g. climate change, ocean acidification, eutrophication) that learners could experience, connecting them with sustainable development issues (sustainable consumption and production, renewable energies, etc.). The materials were assessed as successful by educators and students through experimental implementation in 16 Greek secondary schools. The present article (Part I of the research) focuses on the aim, content and design of the didactic materials while in Part II, assessment of their impact on the knowledge and attitudes of students is presented.

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Introduction

Biogeochemical cycles are an integral part of our “natural capital” which is the most fundamental of the core forms of capital (i.e., manufactured, human, social and natural) since it provides the basic conditions for human existence (EEA, 2015). A large number of human activities such as agriculture, transport, industry, tourism and urban sprawl increasingly influence biogeochemical cycles (Vitousek et al., 1997; Rojstaczer et al., 2001) and degrade a series of natural processes linked with them at local and global scales. For the first time in history, most of the human population lives in urban areas (UN, 2014) where biogeochemical cycles are controlled by complex interactions between society and the environment (Kaye et al., 2006; Pataki et al., 2011), while the impacts are visible in the increase of climate variability and change, loss of biodiversity and decline in ecosystem services (Schlesinger and Bernhardt, 2013). Biogeochemical cycles are as a rule included in the curricula of natural sciences but they may become valuable vehicles for the introduction of sustainable development issues in secondary schools.

Traditionally, in the Greek schooling system the method of descriptive chemistry was followed (Tsaparlis and Angelopoulos, 1993; Tsaparlis, 1994); however, in a series of newer programmes and textbooks a more practically oriented Science, Technology, Environment, and Society (STES) approach (Tsaparlis, 2000; and references therein) seems to be followed and promoted by several individual educators.

Despite some progress, the references to the biogeochemical cycles in the textbooks used by the Greek secondary schooling system are poorly analysed and scattered (as they will be further explained under the section “initiation” of the present paper), not allowing the teachers to fully comprehend the chemistry involved and the great importance of the cycles to properly prepare their lectures. This weakness was identified during the preparatory phase of the present research by many educators of different disciplines who suggested that some additional supporting didactic material on the issue could have been very useful.

All major Environmental Education (EE) and Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) documents and International Conferences from Tbilisi in 1977 (UNESCO, 1978) to Nagoya in 2014 (UNESCO, 2014) recognize explicitly and/or implicitly the importance of knowledge and understanding of general ecological principles and biogeochemical cycles in order to comprehend the interlinkages with production and consumption patterns, as well as with the overall environmental problems, their causes and solutions, at local and global levels (UNESCO, 1978; Negev et al., 2009).

To effectively combine teaching of chemistry and science, in general, to the messages of sustainable development is not an easy task. Practitioners working in secondary schools, in countries like Greece, face major difficulties because of lack of provisions and available time for ESD within the syllabus and limited knowledge, transdisciplinary experience, understanding and access of educators to global issues, despite some promising developments (e.g. the operation of approximately 50 centres on EE & ESD) in the country.

The production of the specific didactic materials, attempts to enhance the knowledge of major biogeochemical cycles and fill the abovementioned gap by introducing learners, not only to the environmental pillar but also to all the other pillars or rather “facets” and aspects of sustainable development (Scoullos, 2010). This multi- and inter-disciplinary approach of the biogeochemical cycles is intended to provide an attractive, innovative and potentially efficient way to introduce ESD through science, and particularly chemistry, while contributing to chemical education research. The latter does not only contribute to understanding and improving chemistry learning by studying variables relating to the chemistry content but it involves the complex interplay between the more global perspective of the social sciences (i.e., the process of learning) and the analytical perspective of the natural sciences (i.e., the content) (Herron and Nurrenburg, 1999).

The present article focuses on the design and content of didactic materials, for students and teachers, largely based on chemistry and aiming at expanding educators and learners' knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena and global problems and their environmental socioeconomic implications, in an effort to mobilize them for a more sustainable future. The materials were produced in Greek. The details of the implementation of the didactic materials and the assessment part of the research programme providing the results on its impact on knowledge and attitudes of students are presented in Part II (Koutalidi and Scoullos, 2015b).

Didactic materials development

Didactic materials were always used in education. They are indispensable in the teaching process, since they are, in addition to the teacher's direct explanation and other learning activities, an important and easily accessible source for students (Mazgon and Stefanc, 2012).

The materials and particularly textbooks are important links of connection between the teacher and student. They also allow the better understanding between what is called the purpose and effect, as they seek to translate the principles of a proposed curriculum – which represents the more general goals of education and a vision of science and technology – into content and activities that can be assimilated by students (Borges, 2000).

Modern didactic materials should serve a dual goal: enhancing understanding of scientific issues, (for instance biogeochemical cycles) and deepening the commitment of learners for sustainable development (UNECE, 2005, 2009).

The UN Decade of ESD (2005–2014) and all relevant global and regional frameworks on ESD (UNECE, 2005, 2009, 2011) have raised the awareness of educators and education administrations on the need to link education with sustainable development issues by addressing existing and emerging global and local problems and challenges in a coherent, constructive and effective way. Teaching and didactic materials used should be able to inspire and facilitate learners to become better persons for a better, more sustainable world by enhancing their competences to know through learning to learn, learning to be and work with others (UNESCO, 1996). Also by developing behaviors, attitudes and skills to act accordingly for the benefit of themselves, the communities within they live, as well as for the society and the environment.

A didactic material should in principle be permeated by a coherent viewpoint about the potential and objectives of ESD itself. Currently, there is still an ongoing dispute between different EE/ESD approaches, namely the instrumental one according to which EE/ESD should serve particular ends and the more pluralistic or emancipatory one, privileging transactional and dialogical forms of decision making characterized by indeterminism and co-creation (Kopnina, 2015). The combination of ESD with science privileges, to a certain extent, the instrumental approach. However, in preparing didactic material the authors, apart from understanding the principles of knowledge construction (Schunk, 2012) need to consider not only their own views about the deeper objectives of ESD teaching and learning but also the potentially different perceptions and approaches of the educators who will use it. The student-centered teaching and learning approaches should guide knowledge information, as well as activities and tools included in the material. Undoubtedly, educators involved in ESD should try to obtain the relevant competences (UNECE, 2008).

The development of didactic material for secondary schools requires the support of a development methodology and a high-quality authoring environment (Padrón et al., 2005). It should be scientifically sound including also the most important recent findings and interpretations on the issues in question and prepared in a comprehensive and simple style. It should help the teacher in planning and carrying out the teaching process and the students with their independent learning, that is, gaining, revising, reflecting on, valuing and using knowledge (Mazgon and Stefanc, 2012). In this respect contextualization is important, and practical examples must be included in an appropriate way, in teaching – learning texts so that can be easily understood by students (Cardoso et al., 2009).

A series of important factors suggested by Koper (2000) for deciding the suitability of available didactic materials in the teaching process, including: (a) the objectives and goals of instruction, (b) the characteristics of educational contents, (c) the intended didactic strategies, (d) the characteristics of the social environment, (e) the characteristics of students and teachers, and (f) the characteristics of the materials themselves were taken into account in preparing didactic materials (Koutalidi, 2015).

Design and production of the didactic materials for biogeochemical cycles

The new didactic materials for biogeochemical cycles were designed to provide not only chemical knowledge and scientific information relevant to the real world conditions that learners could experience, but also include educational content and guidance to achieve the specific goals of ESD.

The didactic materials intended for both students and teachers were designed, prepared and validated through a PhD research carried out in the UNESCO Chair & Network on Sustainable Development Management and Education in the Mediterranean and the Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Department of Chemistry of the University of Athens (Koutalidi, 2015).

The specific objectives of the materials are to: (a) help educators to enrich their “disciplinary” chemistry and science teaching related to biogeochemical cycles and introduce through them some wider aspects of sustainable development and (b) enhance learners' knowledge, influence their attitudes and stimulate their action towards the protection of the environment and sustainable development. Through this process “bridges” are expected to be built between chemistry/science and other school subjects, respecting also the basic aims of the Education for All.

For the design, experimental implementation and assessment of the materials a series of steps was followed:

(i) Initiation

A review of the provisions of the curricula (GG, 2003a, 2003b) and the content of the relevant textbooks which are common throughout the country was carried out. It is noteworthy that all textbooks are under the full responsibility of the Ministry of the Education, prescribed, selected and approved by the Institute of Educational Policy. The textbooks are written by consortia of authors responding to public calls for tender, produced and disseminated by a public agency gratis to all students.

The textbooks examined included the following: (a) for the lower secondary school “Biology”, “Chemistry”, “Physics” and “Domestic Economy”; (b) for the upper secondary school “Biology”, “Chemistry”, “Physics”, “Management of Natural Resources” and “Principles of Environmental Sciences”. It is noteworthy that the last two are textbooks supporting the relevant “optional” subjects followed only by certain students with particular interests on these issues. The results of the review demonstrated that in some of the above mentioned textbooks there are no references to the biogeochemical cycles, while in others there are several references to the cycles of chemical elements (C, N, P, and S) as well as to the hydrological one. The latter is the only cycle which is also included in the curricula of elementary schools but its importance and complexity was considered by the Ministry of Education as such that requires further elaboration and study at the secondary school level to allow learners to fully understand its function and significance (GG, 2003a, 2003b). The relevant issues were found to be scattered in a fragmented way in various chapters of chemistry, biology, physics, etc. not comprehensively explained and lacking the necessary analysis and connection to practical matters. A number of misconceptions were identified (such as a confusion between the “greenhouse effect” and the climate change “per se”). Furthermore, there is lack of connection between disruptions of the cycles and the environmental pollution, either as a cause or as a result of such phenomena. In conclusion, learners are not facilitated to fully understand neither the intra-disciplinary nature of the cycles, nor the critical interlinkages among them or between the cycles and sustainable development issues, (e.g. on production and consumption patterns, ecosystem services, etc.), despite some efforts made in the past through relevant research projects (e.g.Dikaiakos, 2009). Furthermore, nowhere in the curricula, systematic interdisciplinary didactic approaches were identified (GG, 2003a, 2003b).

(ii) Identification of educators needs

A consultation including interview was carried out involving secondary school educators of different disciplines responsible for teaching chemistry and other sciences in order to identify the areas where support is needed, considering also their difficulties in dealing with multi- and interdisciplinary approaches. In general, educators had serious problems in fully understanding the connection among the different cycles. There are no such explanations available in the textbooks and most of them have knowledge gaps in chemical processes. Since most of the cycles are dealt with under biology lessons, biogeochemical cycles are frequently considered by the educators as the most difficult part of their teaching. Finally, the majority of them were not able to easily provide to their students appropriate examples from the everyday life.

(iii) Identification of students' needs

The construction, use and evaluation of a questionnaire addressed to students in order to identify their knowledge gaps and misconceptions on biogeochemical cycles and their overall awareness on environmental and sustainable development issues. The questions were formulated on the basis of a thorough investigation of bibliography, previous research carried out in our laboratory (Papadopoulos, 2005; Dikaiakos, 2009; Roussos, 2010) as well as the conditions prevailing in the Greek schools.

(iv) Design and production of the materials' content/activities

The design and selection of the specific activities of the didactic materials, considering international and Greek literature and the principles and practices of ESD (UNECE, 2005, 2011). Many of the activities were invented for the needs of this programme, while others derive from the combination or amendments of activities from previous surveys (Papadopoulos, 2005; Dikaiakos, 2009; Roussos, 2010) or other didactic materials (Scoullos et al., 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010).

(v) Design of the Teacher Guidebook/Toolkit

This design was based on international and Greek literature and previous experience of the group in producing similar didactic material (Scoullos et al., 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010; Scoullos and Malotidi, 2004; UNECE, 2005; Cardoso et al., 2009; Ceulemans and De Prins, 2010; Granados, 2011; UNECE, 2011; Madsen, 2013; Dumitrescu et al., 2014). It contains a compilation of examples of PowerPoint presentations concerning biogeochemical cycles, principles and practices of ESD as well as a comprehensive list of useful links.

The content of (iv) and (v) above is examined in the next chapter.

(vi) The implementation of the didactic material

The didactic material developed was classified as an “Environmental and SD Education Program” suitable to be used under the newly introduced compulsory school subject called “school project” (GG, 2011). It was experimentally applied, during the school year 2011–2012, in classes of year one of upper secondary school pupils (15–16 years) in sixteen (16) schools voluntarily participating, located in urban and suburban areas of south east and central Greece (see Part II, Koutalidi and Scoullos, 2015b).

(vii) The Assessment of the didactic materials

The effectiveness and suitability of the didactic materials were assessed in three complimentary ways:

(a) by employing the pre- and the post-control method using the questionnaire described under step (iii) above addressed to both the experimental and control groups (Bieger and Gerlach, 1996; Cohen et al., 1996; Wiersma, 2000). The detailed results of the assessment are presented elsewhere (Koutalidi et al., 2013; Koutalidi, 2015), indicating a positive impact on students' knowledge about biogeochemical cycles and their link to sustainable development as well as on students' attitudes about the environment and sustainability.

(b) by collecting the views of the learners participating in the experimental implementation through a questionnaire on the following: the structure of the material, its attractiveness, comprehensibility, opportunities it offered to work together and developed initiatives. The results of the assessment were very positive (Koutalidi, 2015).

(c) by considering the opinion of the educators involved in the implementation of the programme, by using an anonymous questionnaire and interviews. The results of the assessment were very positive (Koutalidi and Scoullos, 2015a).

The whole research project including the survey, the pedagogical module and the implementation of the didactic materials in the schools was approved by the Greek Ministry of Education, as well as by the Teacher Council of each school based on strict scientific, pedagogical and ethical criteria, including the requirement for prior information of the students and their parents about the project. It is noteworthy that the instrument of the research (questionnaire) was anonymous.

Description of the components and content of the didactic materials

From the two didactic materials produced, the first one entitled “Guidebook of Educational Activities on Biogeochemical Cycles” intended for both students and teachers, while the second entitled “Teacher Guidebook/Toolkit” is addressed to educators.

The first didactic material consists of six parts: five “vertical” and one “horizontal”. The “vertical” ones are “cycle-specific” and refer, respectively, to the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur as well as the hydrological cycle. For each cycle/part a series of activities has been developed, clustered under two major thematic questions: (a) what are the fundamental biogeochemical processes of the cycles and how they are linked to the knowledge already included in the standard textbooks and curriculum and (b) what are the natural and anthropogenic causes and key underpinning drivers for the destruction of the cycles as well as the impacts of their disturbance on environmental, socioeconomic and geopolitical aspects of our life and the potential for future development. Table 1 indicates in a summarised way some connections among the biogeochemical cycles, major natural phenomena as they are experienced/known by students and a series of important sustainable development issues. The material is available to learners providing them with the necessary background for their study, preparation, etc. while the educator could use it to elaborate his lectures and, raise the awareness and interest of students, expanding their knowledge and critical thinking and stimulating the needed behavioral changes and mobilization for action.

Table 1 Indicative thematic connections between Biogeochemical Processes, major Phenomena and possible links with SD related Issues

	Cycles	Biogeochemical processes	Phenomena	SD related issues
1	Carbon	Photosynthesis; aerobic and anaerobic decomposition; production of greenhouse gases	Greenhouse effect; climate variability and change; atmospheric pollution; ocean acidification	Links to: unsustainable modes of production and consumption; increasing CO2 emissions; scarcity of energy resources; geopolitical implications; poverty; renewable energy; non-carbon economy
2	Nitrogen	N-fixation; N-reduction; nitrification; denitrification; N-assimilation	Eutrophication; nitrates in ground waters; greenhouse effect of gaseous species of nitrogen; acid rain	Links to: pollution of water resources destined to produce potable water; role and use of fertilizers; detergents; sewage treatment; alternative nitrogen sources; food safety
3	Phosphorus	ortho-Phosphates; conversion to various forms of phosphorus; introduction to the food chain; phosphate minerals	Eutrophication; self purification of natural waters employing ecosystem services	Links to: scarcity of phosphorus minerals; fertilizers; food safety; alternative sources from wastewater treatment: struvite; circular and green economy
4	Sulfur	Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms; oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide and elemental sulfur to sulfate	Acid rain; anaerobic transformations in natural waters	Links to: different types of air pollution from industrial activities/use of fossil fuels; desulfurization; transborder pollution
5	Hydrological cycle	Evapotranspiration, condensation and precipitation, run off, water as universal solvent	Washing and transferring of pollution from the atmosphere to surface and groundwater bodies, soil salinization through salt water intrusion, desertification	Links to: water scarcity; floods and droughts; transborder conflicts over water; health impacts through water induced diseases; poverty; non-conventional water resources

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The structure and content of each one of the vertical components are similar. It offers a menu of activities from which the educator may choose according to the needs of the class and his/her specific background/competences.

Indicatively, the part/component referring to the nitrogen cycle includes activities such as: (a) bibliographic research, (b) brainstorming and conceptual mapping, (c) exercise with “crossword” & “wordsearch”, helping students to get acquainted and assimilate difficult terms such as “nitrification” and “denitrification”, (d) appropriate experiments in the school laboratory or in the field, which facilitate students to comprehend basic processes of the nitrogen cycle, impact of application of nitrogen containing products, etc. More specifically, within this cluster of activities the following are included: calculation of the actual fertilization needs of certain cultivations, identification of the content/components of fertilizers, observation of the impact of fertilizers in the growth of selected plants, production and use of compost from solid wastes, examining the contributions of nitrogen oxides to the generation of acid rain, observation of eutrophicated waters, etc. Apart from the above, the material provides guidance for dramatisation/role playing, where pupils represent specific sectors dealing with the production and use of important nitrogen products having environmental consequences (e.g. fertilizers and detergents) contributing on the one hand to water pollution and on the other to food safety or healthcare, respectively. Furthermore, tips are provided for visiting fertilizers' factories, farms, etc. (see Appendices 1 & 2).

The sixth, “horizontal” part is not “cycle specific” and provides material and examples of applications for the support of the educational interventions of all five “vertical” parts. Indicatively this part includes extracts from important Conventions related to the protection of the environment (e.g. the Climate Change, Biodiversity Conventions, etc.), general environmental awareness activities in the classroom, instructions for field visits/studies, various constructions, artistic activities, photography, video making, organization of exhibitions, interviews with experts, etc. (see example on photographic exhibition, Appendix 3). In addition some interventions are suggested to encourage students to come together, stimulate their engagement, enhance their ownership and undertake individual responsibilities according to the principles and practical applications of ESD (Scoullos and Malotidi, 2004; Scoullos, 2007a, 2007b; Eilam and Trop, 2010).

Every activity included and described in the six parts has a similar structure summarised in its “identity card”, consisting of: (a) the title, (b) the didactic objectives of the material according to the Bloom taxonomy (Bloom et al., 1956; Kratthwohl et al., 1999; Bloom and Kratthwohl, 2000): cognitive, emotional, psychomotor, (c) the indicative duration of the activity, which depends on the age, abilities and psychology of the students, as well as the experience, commitment and personality of the teachers and the available material-technical infrastructure and conditions prevailing, (d) the school rank it addresses (lower or upper secondary school), (e) the relevant school subjects (curriculum subject in which the biogeochemical cycles and the ESD problematic could be integrated), (f) the needed materials and instruments for carrying out the activity, (g) the indicative course of the activity where all the steps of the process are described in detail and (h) tips and emphasis on certain points that should be taken into account during the conduct of the activity.

The themes of the didactic materials allow for the integration of specific information, issues and concepts to the relevant parts of school subjects not only of chemistry and biology, but also of physics, geography and even non-science subjects such as history, art and religion.

Most activities were accompanied by a worksheet for students which aims at helping them to record their observations, eliminate/reduce misconceptions by answering specific questions, foster the knowledge they have acquired by expanding it to other cognitive areas and draw conclusions. It also enables them to have second thoughts about the protection of the environment and sustainable development as well as to create positive attitudes and put them into action.

The modular structure of the activities allows the teacher to use them in a flexible way according to the students' experiences, their age, the classrooms' possibilities and the circumstances that prevail in each occasion, and mainly according to the aim of the programme. The teachers have the possibility to choose the themes and activities they prefer, draw ideas and approach them in a creative way by supplementing them and/or by adding new ones. The knowledge and the experience of the teachers in issues directly related to the students such as the local traditions, the biodiversity and the geomorphology of the neighboring areas, major local challenges and opportunities (e.g. accidents, pollution incidences, vicinity to natural resources, and protected areas), can enrich their teaching and help the students to find a linkage between school subjects and everyday life.

Through the “Teacher Guidebook/Toolkit” which is in a digital form, educators are facilitated for their better understanding and improvement of their performance on theory development about SD and ESD, while they are provided with visual supporting material e.g. pictures from related phenomena, models in digital form, etc. to better prepare their lectures (see example in Appendix 4). The Toolkit contains PowerPoint examples of the basic biogeochemical processes/steps of each cycle, the causes of their disruption as well as their connection with major phenomena and sustainable development related issues. For instance: for the nitrogen cycle the processes of N-fixation, nitrification, denitrification, etc. are described; for the carbon cycle: photosynthesis, aerobic and anaerobic decomposition, etc.; similarly processes of all the other cycles are included. Presentations from related phenomena such as the “greenhouse effect”, “eutrophication”, “acid rain”, etc. are provided through hyperlinks. Finally, visual materials such as images (e.g. of rhizobium bacteria on the roots of legumes, eutrophicated waters, various sources of air pollution, etc.) as well as short videos on digital models of the cycles are included in order to enhance the teaching/learning procedure and help the learners to connect the cycles with everyday life. The above aim is to enhance educators' competences which, in turn, are linked to the competences we wish to be developed, through ESD, by learners (UNECE, 2008, 2011).

Conclusions

This article reports the development process of new didactic materials for the biogeochemical cycles of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and water, designed for the specific needs and conditions of the Greek secondary schools. The materials were experimentally applied for one semester, to sixteen schools from various parts of the country, in the framework of the new compulsory school subject, the so called “school project”.

Although it was originally destined to be used in conjunction with standard textbooks complimenting them and facilitating the introduction of critical ESD issues related to them, the result could be considered as an autonomous didactic material. Its innovative character is based on the fact that it simultaneously strengthens the chemical and overall scientific knowledge linked to the cycles, while it demonstrates their multiple connections to burning socioeconomic, cultural and geopolitical aspects. Its modular structure and the adjacent to it “Teachers Guidebook/Toolkit” offer a flexible tool in the hands of educators allowing them to put an emphasis on important and/or emerging issues of relevance for the local and global society and economy.

The analysis of the results of the experimental application (Koutalidi et al., 2015) indicates its value through the positive impact on students' knowledge. Learners were able to minimize misconceptions, understand better the cycles and comprehend their connection to various aspects of sustainable development, including e.g. the links between climate change and disruption of the water cycle, overpopulation and famine issues linked to the needs for agricultural production, use of fertilizers connected to the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, etc. Furthermore, the results indicated that certain components of the students' attitudes were also impacted positively through the application of the didactic material.

As it concerns the ESD message, the material does not explicitly side with any particular position in the dispute between the instrumental and the more pluralistic/emancipatory approach. This allows educators to make their own choices and interpretations eventually in an eclectic way (Fien, 2002), depending on the nature and specific issues raised. Nevertheless, the science background of the material emanates the respect for the “intrinsic value of nature” and the moral obligation of humans to ensure the undisturbed functioning of the biogeochemical cycles in nature, balancing human and natural worlds. In this way, the material implicitly supports those who expect ESD to address successfully even the “paradox” mentioned by Kopnina (2015), namely the pluralistic perspectives (e.g.Ohman, 2006; Wals, 2010), combined with behaviours and attitudes safeguarding environmentally benign and functioning natural cycles. After all, ESD is about reconciling, balancing and combining without losing the irreplaceable and without moving to irreversible. In this way the material follows the paradigm suggested by Sterling (2010) reconciling instrumental and intrinsic educational traditions, informed and infused by the resilience theory and social learning.

In conclusion, the didactic materials described in this paper, for Greek secondary schools, utilising the biogeochemical cycles in order to combine chemical knowledge with sustainable development issues are useful and powerful tools, in the hands of educators. Through them learners' knowledge of chemistry and understanding of sustainable development issues are enhanced, while ESD could effectively be introduced through chemistry and science, into the formal education system of the country.

Appendix 1

“Simulation Model of the “greenhouse effect”, translated extracts from the “Activity 5” of the original material concerning the carbon cycle (original in Greek).

Appendix 2

“Dramatization/Playing role and the use of fertilizers”, translation of the “Activity 8”, of the original material concerning the nitrogen cycle (original in Greek).

Appendix 3

“Photography exhibition”, translation of an indicative horizontal activity of artistic nature (“Activity 7”), of the original material relevant for all biogeochemical cycles (original in Greek).

In all the above activities the didactic objectives are indicated according to the Bloom Taxonomy, as referred in the text, (C: cognitive, E: emotional, P: psychomotor).

Appendix 4

Indicative example from ppt included in the Educator Guidebook/Toolkit concerning the evolution of SD and the connection between biogeochemical cycles and the sustainable development pyramid (original in Greek).

Acknowledgements

This work was partly supported by the project ARISTEIA I, 640 (Code 11903) co-funded by EU and Greek national funds within the “Lifelong Learning Programme”.

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