Ying Zhou*a,
Zhiping Wangb,
Takeshi Saitoc,
Tetsuhiko Miyaderab,
Masayuki Chikamatsub,
Satoru Shimadaa and
Reiko Azumia
aElectronics and Photonics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, 305-8565, Tsukuba, Japan. E-mail: y-shuu@aist.go.jp
bResearch Center for Photovoltaics, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, 305-8565, Tsukuba, Japan
cNanomaterials Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, 305-8565, Tsukuba, Japan
First published on 26th February 2016
We demonstrate stable carbon nanotube (CNT) hybrid films as transparent electrodes for small-molecule photovoltaic cells. A photonic curing process is utilized to enhance the doping, and construct CNT hybrid films with solution-processed CuI and evaporated MoO3, respectively. These novel CNT–CuI and CNT–MoO3 hybrid films exhibit stable sheet resistances of 70 and 110 Ω per square at around 80% transmittance, respectively. OPV cells are fabricated by evaporating a tetraphenyldibenzoperiflanthene and fullerene bilayer heterojunction on a series of CNT hybrid films. The corresponding optimization of OPV cells are carried out on CNT–CuI and CNT–MoO3 hybrid films. The correlations between the cell performance and the surface morphology, sheet resistance and transmittance of these CNT hybrid films are discussed in detail. The optimum cell on the CNT–CuI film with a nanostructured cascade-type architecture exhibits a power conversion efficiency of 2.97%.
Thin films of carbon nanotube (CNT) exhibiting high electrical conductivity and high optical transparency, can be a transparent electrode instead of ITO.26 Compared with other potential candidates of transparent electrodes, CNT films not only enable a lower cost process, but also provide a more stretchable and flexible platform with stronger mechanical strength.27 However, doping with acids is usually required to improve the contact between CNTs, and thus achieve a high conductivity in CNT films. Most of the doped CNT films are not stable to air, temperature, or humidity, showing a rapid decrease in conductivity after doping.28 The stability problem could be more severe during actual device process, especially in vacuum process. Thus, very few papers report the vacuum-evaporated OPV cells using CNT as transparent electrodes.
This work aims to develop a methodology for fabricating efficient OPV cells via vacuum evaporating small molecules on CNT transparent electrodes. Here, CuI and MoO3, both of which are widely used as hole transport layers for OPV applications, are utilized to dope CNT transparent electrodes, respectively. Both of CuI and MoO3 are typical wide-bandgap semiconductors with deep work function of above 5.2 eV, being close to the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of donor molecules. MoO3 is also used as an electron acceptor for doping organic semiconductor and CNTs,29,30 while CuI can act a structural template to control the molecular growth to improve the OPV cells.31 In addition to the promising electrical properties, CuI and MoO3 have moderate melting point (bellow 800 °C) for structural modification. Firstly, we develop a full solution process to fabricate CNT–CuI hybrid films by utilizing a photonic curing process. The CNT–CuI films exhibit similar sheet resistances to the our previous report using vacuum-evaporated CuI film.32 On the other hand, a novel CNT–MoO3 hybrid films are also fabricated with stable conductivity in vacuum. Secondly, OPV cells are fabricated with using tetraphenyldibenzoperiflanthene (DBP) as a donor and fullerene (C60) as an acceptor.33,34 Corresponding optimizations of OPV cells are carried out on CNT–CuI and CNT–MoO3 hybrid films. Crystalline diindenoperylene (DIP) is introduced to construct a cascade-type cell architecture on CNT–CuI hybrid film smoothed with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) film. The PCE of optimized OPV cell on CNT–CuI reaches 2.97%, which is comparable to the efficient small-molecule OPV cells using metal nanowires and graphene as transparent electrodes.35–40
Fig. 2 shows the doping-induced variations in optical transmittance and sheet resistance. Here, we fabricated a series of CNT films with well-controlled transmittances. In Fig. 2(a), intrinsic CNT films exhibited high sheet resistances of above 1000 Ω per square, which were slightly decreased after spin-coating of CuI. Obviously, the continuous CuI film with a high sheet resistance of above 105 Ω per square contributed limitedly to the conductivity of CNT films. However, the photonic curing greatly decreased the sheet resistance by a factor of 10. As a result, the CNT–CuI films with transmittance of around 75%, 80%, 85% and 90% exhibited sheet resistances of 50 ± 10, 70 ± 10, 100 ± 10, and 180 ± 20 Ω per square, respectively. The detailed effects of CuI doping have been discussed with spectroscopies.39 Moreover, Fig. 2(b) shows that the photonic curing process led to a total removal of the S22 peak at around 1350 nm, a well-known phenomenon for doping semiconducting CNT with acid.43,44 It indicates that photonic curing encouraged CuI doping, and induced the transition from semiconducting to metallic CNTs, where carriers (holes) were efficiently injected into the band structure of CNT. After photonic curing, CuI nanoparticles modified the contact between the CNTs, and thus dramatically improved the network conductivity, while the transmittance remained constantly high. On the other hand, the sheet resistances are comparable to those using vacuum evaporated CuI.31 Their differences in morphology suggest that optimization of CuI thickness and photonic curing process may further improve the conductivity. Comparing with the transmittance spectra of ITO, with similar transmittance at 550 nm, CNT–CuI electrode absorbs less in the wavelength of above 600 nm. Therefore, CNT–CuI is promising for further improving OPV cells using narrow-bandgap materials or tandem structures, which absorb near infrared light.
It has been reported that MoO3 can be an efficient and stable dopant to improve the conductivity of CNT film, while it required thermal annealing at above 450 °C for 3 h in inert gas atmosphere.29 Here, we utilized photonic curing to modify CNT–MoO3 films. Fig. 3(a) gives the surface morphology of CNT–MoO3 film before curing. No clear structural variation induced by MoO3 can be observed. Unlike CuI, 10 nm thick MoO3 film by vacuum evaporation exhibited amorphous state (or crystallites) with small grain size of 10 nm, as shown in Fig. S4.† After photonic curing with same parameters used for CNT–CuI, MoO3 nanoparticles with diameters of 50–100 nm appeared in Fig. 3(b). These nanoparticles fully covered CNT film. Further curing process with stronger power finally resulted in the formation of a novel CNT–MoO3 hybrid film, as shown in Fig. 3(c). Note that these nanoparticles are also individually located at the cross points of CNT bundles as interconnecting nodes. MoO3 has a melting point of 795 °C, being much higher than the softening point of glass substrate (550–700 °C) used in the present work. Thus, photonic curing process realized a quick high temperature process on low-temperature substrate. It also indicates the universality of our method to fabricate CNT hybrid networks with different nanoparticles for desired applications. In Fig. 3(d), S22 peak disappears, suggesting that photonic curing simultaneously enhanced charge-transfer doping of MoO3. However, we note 3–4% drop in transmittance ranging from 500 to 1200 nm after photonic curing. Similar phenomena occurred for MoO3 pure layer after photonic curing, while the reason remains unclear. As shown in Fig. 3(e), photonic curing also increased the conductivity of CNT–MoO3 by a factor of around 10. As a result, the CNT–MoO3 films with transmittance of around 72%, 76%, 82% and 87% exhibited sheet resistances of 90 ± 10, 110 ± 10, 220 ± 30, and 350 ± 50 Ω per square, respectively. The results are comparable to the results using high-temperature annealing.29
For OPV cells using evaporated small molecules, controlling the molecular growth is of great importance to achieve high performances. We deposited a few of buffer layers to modify the CNT transparent electrodes, and fabricate series of OPV cells with a DBP (15 nm)/C60 (50 nm) bilayer heterojunction architecture. Firstly, a 40 nm-thick PEDOT:PSS film, a well-known hole extraction layer was spin coated to smoothen the surface of CNT films. PEDOT:PSS film has been widely used for fabricating ITO-free OPV cells.35–40 Fig. 4 shows the cell structure and performances, and Table 1 summaries the detailed parameters. For the bare CNT–CuI film, large leakage currents can be observed in both of dark and light J–V curves in Fig. 4(b) and (c), suggesting that the large surface roughness of CNT led to severe damages (shorting the electrodes) in the cell. Although its short-circuit current (JSC) and EQE was very comparable to that for reference cell prepared on ITO, the poor rectifying characteristics resulted in a very low PCE of 0.19%. However, depositing a PEDOT:PSS film on CNT–CuI significantly improved the rectifying characteristics. Compared to the reference cell on ITO, the cell on CNT–CuI exhibited large decreases in open-circuit voltage (VOC) and fill factor (FF), possibly because of the much larger sheet resistance of electrode and the large leakage current.
Transparent electrode | Transmittance (%) | Sheet resistance (Ω per square) | Buffer layer | PCE (%) | JSC (mA cm−2) | VOC (V) | FF | Series resistance (Ω cm2) | Shunt resistance (Ω cm2) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
a Measured before coating with PEDOT:PSS (PP). | |||||||||
ITO | 88 | 10 | w/o | 2.28 | 4.1 | 0.90 | 0.62 | 6 | 1.8 × 103 |
CNT–CuI | 85 | 100 ± 10 | w/o | 0.19 | 3.5 | 0.17 | 0.32 | 14 | 1.3 × 102 |
CNT–CuI | 85 | 100 ± 10 | PP | 1.95 | 5.8 | 0.76 | 0.44 | 38 | 7.2 × 102 |
CNT(HNO3) | 85 | 110 ± 10a | PP | 1.40 | 5.7 | 0.80 | 0.30 | 111 | 4.2 × 102 |
ITO | 88 | 10 | PP/DIP | 3.43 | 6.3 | 0.91 | 0.60 | 8 | 3.5 × 103 |
CNT–CuI | 75 | 50 ± 10 | PP/DIP | 2.33 | 6.6 | 0.67 | 0.55 | 13 | 1.6 × 103 |
CNT–CuI | 80 | 70 ± 10 | PP/DIP | 2.98 | 7.3 | 0.77 | 0.53 | 20 | 2.0 × 103 |
CNT–CuI | 85 | 100 ± 10 | PP/DIP | 2.70 | 7.7 | 0.79 | 0.45 | 22 | 6.2 × 102 |
CNT–CuI | 90 | 180 ± 20 | PP/DIP | 2.75 | 8.2 | 0.84 | 0.40 | 55 | 5.5 × 102 |
ITO | 88 | 10 | MoO3 | 2.42 | 4.2 | 0.90 | 0.64 | 5 | 2.1 × 103 |
CNT–MoO3 | 72 | 90 ± 10 | MoO3 | 1.61 | 5.2 | 0.58 | 0.53 | 12 | 6.0 × 102 |
CNT–MoO3 | 76 | 110 ± 10 | MoO3 | 1.87 | 6.6 | 0.61 | 0.46 | 27 | 7.2 × 102 |
CNT–MoO3 | 82 | 220 ± 30 | MoO3 | 1.54 | 6.3 | 0.61 | 0.40 | 39 | 8.1 × 102 |
CNT–MoO3 | 87 | 350 ± 50 | MoO3 | 1.62 | 6.8 | 0.66 | 0.35 | 50 | 1.0 × 103 |
On the other hand, 40% increase in JSC can be observed. The enhancement in JSC is identified by the EQE spectra in Fig. 4(d), where the peaks at wavelengths of λ = 560 nm and λ = 605 nm correspond to the DBP absorption region, while the peak at λ = 440 nm corresponds to the C60 absorption region. As a result, the PCE of cell on CNT–CuI reached 1.95%, being close to the cell on bare ITO (2.28%). Moreover, we fabricated similar cell on CNT doped with HNO3. Its series resistance of 111 Ω cm2, being 3-fold larger than that for CNT–CuI, implies that device process in vacuum greatly deteriorated the film conductivity. The poor FF of 0.30 demonstrates that such unstable doping method is not applicable. On the other hand, it has been reported that CuI nanoparticles can be an efficient structural template to improve OPV cells.31 Note that the cells on HNO3-doped CNT and CNT–CuI hybrids exhibited very similar JSC and EQE spectra. Apparently, here, the variations in optical transmittance and surface morphology due to the existence of CuI nanoparticle can be negligible. On the other hand, PEDOT:PSS film on ITO showed a very smooth surface with a root mean square (rms) roughness of 1.1 nm in Fig. 4(b), being slightly smaller (around 1.9 nm) than that of bare ITO, while it showed a hill-like morphology (see Fig. 4(c)) with a high rms roughness of 4.6 nm on CNT–CuI. It indicates that the formation of PEDOT:PSS film strongly depended on the surface morphology of CNT. The rough PEDOT:PSS surface may lead to a rough organic film, thus larger DBP/C60 interfacial area was obtained for more efficient exciton dissociation. We will discuss the improvement in JSC in following section.
We further deposited a DIP film on PEDOT:PSS to construct a DIP/DBP/C60 cascade-type architecture to improve the cell performances. It has been demonstrated that such device structure not only provides larger interface area over conventional planar cell, but also enables more efficient exciton transfer in DBP film.45 As shown in Fig. 5, OPV cells on a series of CNT–CuI films were fabricated to understand the effects of transmittance and the resistance on performances. Table 1 shows that the series resistance is approximately proportional to the sheet resistance of CNT–CuI. Correspondingly, the FF decreased from 0.55 to 0.40 with increasing the sheet resistance from 50 to 180 Ω per square. However, JSC increased from 6.6 to 8.2 mA cm−2 with increasing transmittance from 75% to 90%. Fig. 5(f) identifies that the variations in EQE spectra are related to the transmittance spectra in Fig. 2(c). Especially, the cell on CNT–CuI with a transmittance of 75% exhibited a large decrease in EQE spectra from 400 to 500 nm. It suggests that the CNT–CuI film with low transmittance absorbed too much light to efficiently harvest light for C60 film.
Moreover, all the OPV cells prepared on CNT–CuI exhibited smaller VOC than ITO cell (0.90 V). Generally, VOC is determined by the difference between the HOMO of the donor and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the acceptor, while it depends on a number of parameters including illumination intensity, temperature, mobility of charge carrier, and electrode/organic interfaces.46 Large leakage current (rectifying properties) and high sheet resistance due to CNT–CuI electrode are the possible reasons for the degradations in VOC by comparing with ITO cell. The detrimental effect of the leakage current to VOC was demonstrated, where the VOC was 50% decreased by increasing the leakage current by two orders of magnitude in small-molecular solar cells.47 On the other hand, for the OPV cells on CNT–CuI electrodes, we note that VOC increased from 0.67 to 0.84 V with transmission of the CNT–CuI electrodes. The shunt resistance (in Table 1) seems to be independent on VOC, suggesting that the variations in VOC can be attributed to the actual illumination intensities due to the different transmittances of CNT–CuI. Trap-assisted recombination, which degrades the VOC becomes more important when the light-generated charge-carrier density is smaller at lower illumination intensity.48 The results indicate that both of high transmittance and low sheet resistance of CNT transparent are important to achieve efficient OPV cells. In addition, comparing to the reference cell fabricated on ITO, all of the cells on CNT–CuI exhibited smaller VOC, and FF, but larger JSC. The increase in the EQE spectra from 400 to 650 nm, identifies that cascade structure was successfully established on CNT–CuI,44 and the DBP/C60 contact area was larger on CNT–CuI film. As a result, the best cell fabricated on the CNT–CuI film with 80% transmittance exhibited JSC of 7.3 mA cm−2, VOC of 0.77 V, FF of 0.53, leading to a PCE of 2.97%, being close to the cell (3.43%) on conventional ITO. According to our knowledge, it is the first efficient OPV cell based evaporating small molecules on CNT transparent electrode.
Furthermore, to understand the origins of the improvement in JSC by using CNT–CuI electrode, we measured the total reflectance (R) of the OPV cells and the transmittance (T) of the CNT–CuI films (Fig. 2(c)), and calculated the IQE by further excluding the absorption of CNT–CuI:
IQE(λ) = EQE(λ)/[1 − R(λ) − (1 − T(λ))] | (1) |
In Fig. 6, the OPV cells on series of CNT–CuI films exhibited very similar IQE spectra in whole wavelength, indicating that the sheet resistance of CNT–CuI played a negligible role in the efficiencies in exciton dissociation, charge transfer and charge collection. Thus, those variations in JSC should be attributed to the absorption of CNT–CuI electrodes. On the other hand, compared to the reference cell on ITO, IQE spectra increased from 60% to 70%, and from 70% to 85% for C60 and DBP absorption region, respectively. It implies that larger DBP/C60 interface due to the porous CNT–CuI film led to increase in exciton dissociation efficiency in whole absorption region, resulting in 20% increase in JSC. On the other hand, the 40% increase in JSC is observed in OPV cell without DIP layer, compared with ITO cell, as shown in Fig. 4. Clearly, increasing the interfacial area could be more efficient for exciton dissociation without DIP layer, because more excitons would be annihilated on DBP/ITO interface. Overall, constructing nanostructured template is an efficient strategy for improving the OPV cells no mater ITO is used or not.31,45 Especially, capitalizing the structural characteristics (1-dimensional nanostructures) of non-traditional electrodes including CNT, metal nanowires may provide a new strategy for efficient OPV cells.
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Fig. 6 Internal quantum efficiencies (IQE) of the OPV cells on CNT–CuI with a PEDOT:PSS/DIP/DBP/C60 structure. |
MoO3 is a wide bandgap semiconductor, which has been widely used in OPV cells as a hole extraction layer.30 We further deposited a 10 nm-thick MoO3 film on CNT–MoO3 to modify the interface between the CNT and organic layer. Thus, the unique morphology (Fig. 3(c)) can remain to construct nanostructured OPV cell as a template without PEDOT:PSS coating. The results of OPV cells fabricated on CNT–MoO3 are given in Fig. 7. As shown in Fig. 3(d) in spite of the fact that very similar CNT films were fabricated for CuI and MoO3 doping, photonic curing caused 3–4% drop in transmittance of CNT–MoO3. We note that the cells on CNT–MoO3 films exhibited very similar transmittance/resistance dependence with the cells on CNT–CuI. Table 1 shows that series resistance increased from 12 to 50 Ω per square with increasing the sheet resistance from 90 to 350 Ω per square, resulting in a reduction in FF from 0.53 to 0.35. The JSC increased from 5.2 to 6.8 mA cm−2, while the VOC increased from 0.58 to 0.66 V with increasing the transmittance from 72 to 87%. Moreover, compared to the reference cell fabricated on ITO, the cells on CNT–MoO3 exhibited larger JSC. Apparently, the MoO3 nanoparticles in CNT–MoO3 film led to rougher DBP film, and correspondingly larger DBP/C60 surface area for more efficient exciton dissociation. The EQE spectra in Fig. 7(d) indicate that CNT–MoO3 with similar 87% transmittance led to about 100% and 50% increases in C60 and DBP absorption region, respectively. More efficient light harvesting in C60 absorption region is possibly attributed to two reasons: (1) more excitons in C60 layer can be dissociated at rough DBP/C60 interface because C60 (20–40 nm) exhibits higher diffusion length than DBP (10 nm);45 (2) excitons in C60 layer can be dissociated at C60/MoO3 interface49 since DBP film with a thickness of 15 nm could not fully cover the rough CNT–MoO3 surface. Moreover, all the OPV cells prepared on CNT–MoO3 exhibited smaller VOC and FF, comparing with ITO cell. It indicates that the large leakage current and sheet resistance should be further improved. The best cell fabricated on the CNT–MoO3 film with 80% transmittance exhibited a PCE of 1.87%, which was 2.42% for the reference cell on ITO.
Footnote |
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/c6ra01674j |
This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016 |