Environmental digest

Legislation

Brussels maintains tough line on air quality

Governments' demands for more leeway on EU air quality standards have fallen on deaf ears, with the European Commission rejecting a swathe of requests to delay compliance. The move shows the Commission is losing patience with member states over continued delays on the matter.¹

Under EU legislation, European states can delay a 2010 deadline for meeting local targets on nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) if they can persuade Brussels that hourly and annual goals will be met by 2015. But the EU executive has traditionally taken a tough stance on requests for derogations. In this latest round, fewer than half of the air quality zones concerned met conditions for an extension, according to the Commission.

The decision covered applications under the ambient air quality directive from six member states. Of these, only Finland's application, which related solely to Helsinki, was approved in full. Italy was granted 21 of the 48 extensions for which it applied. The rejected zones include Rome, Naples and Turin, none of which are expected to meet the targets by 2015. Belgium, Austria, the Czech Republic and Spain also had their applications cut back. Latvia and the UK had previously had applications curtailed.

The UK had requested a five-year extension to the 2010 compliance deadline for 24 air quality zones, of which only 12 were granted. The Commission said applications had been rejected because there was no guarantee that low emission zones (LEZs) described in the plans would be implemented. Several of the zones also had a large compliance gap, of up to 22 micrograms per cubic metre of NO₂. The decision means more than two-thirds of the UK's air quality zones are unlikely to comply with NO₂ limits by 2015. This marks a major setback for the UK government, which had promised to “work towards full compliance with European air quality standards” under the coalition agreement.

The Commission's move came in the wake of data showing that air pollution emitted from sources such as traffic, industry and households remains above internationally agreed limits in many European countries. The report by the European Environment Agency (EEA) confirms an initial assessment published earlier this year, showing 12 EU Member States exceeded limits under the National Emissions Ceilings (NEC) Directive in 2010.² Nitrogen oxide (NO_x) limits were exceeded most frequently, with 12 member states failing to keep emissions below agreed ceilings. In a separate report based on member state reporting, the EEA estimates the contribution of natural sources to particulate matter pollution. Sahara dust, sea spray and fires all contribute to poor air quality, the EEA notes.

The Commission is currently reviewing the EU's air quality policy, and, amongst other initiatives, is expected to propose a revised NEC Directive in 2013 at the latest.³ A revised directive will build on the findings of the policy review and is likely to set objectives for 2020 and beyond for relevant air pollutants. In the absence of new legislation, however, the NEC Directive remains in force and requires countries to keep emissions below national ceilings in the years beyond 2010. In addition, they will need to comply with international obligations under the recent revisions to the Gothenburg Protocol.⁴

Meanwhile, the new French government is to review national clean air initiatives, including a trial of its LEZs announced last year. Eight cities including Paris and Lyon have volunteered to trial the zones, under which the most polluting vehicles would be banned from sensitive areas. But some feasibility studies have been delayed and Nice withdrew from the programme in June. There are also concerns that suburban workers unable to afford cleaner vehicles such as hybrids would be put at a disadvantage.

European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/legislation/time_extensions.htm; EEA: http://www.eea.europa.eu; French Ministry of Environment: http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr.

Mercury talks stall in Uruguay

The prospects of a meaningful international treaty on mercury appear to be receding after the latest round of talks in Uruguay made only sluggish progress.⁵

Opening the meeting in Punta del Este in early July, Luis Almagro, Uruguay's Minister of Foreign Affairs, had urged delegates to “establish a robust and dynamic regime to protect the environment and minimise the human health risks posed by mercury.” But by the end of the session, the draft negotiating text remained heavily bracketed, with multiple policy options still on the table for all major issues.

“We have only one meeting left [before the adoption of a global mercury treaty] and all big issues are still open,” said Elena Lymberidi of NGO coalition the Zero Mercury Working Group. Ms Lymberidi added that not a single mercury-containing product was discussed. “Time is running out on deciding which products to phase out and by when,” she said.

Limited progress was made in finalising an article on small-scale gold mining, although even here the meaning of “insignificant” activities was not clearly defined. A definition for best available techniques to reduce or control emissions and releases of mercury was also adopted. The text on contaminated sites has been simplified but is very weak, according to campaigners, with no support for the polluter says principle.

Another area that remains highly contentious is health. China, Latin America and Africa favour a separate article on assessing and reducing exposure to mercury, whereas developed countries, such as the EU and US, prefer to address health aspects through other parts of the treaty.

Negotiators will meet for a further session in January ahead of the diplomatic conference that will convene in Japan in 2013.

UNEP: http://www.unep.org

Europe debates offshore rules

European policymakers are said to be making good progress with proposals to tighten rules on the safety of offshore oil and gas installations. The measures were first set out two years ago in the wake of the Deepwater Horizon disaster.⁶

One rather arcane issue focuses on the law's legal basis under the EU treaties. The European Commission had proposed that the law be passed as a ‘regulation’, which would apply immediately and equally throughout all EU Member States. The European Parliament and national governments favour a ‘directive’ instead; this would require separate adoption in each country but allow greater flexibility for local conditions. Belgian MEP Ivo Belet, who is sponsoring the measure in the Parliament, favours a directive, saying regulation would lead to a costly and lengthy overhaul of existing national law.

Eero Ailio from the Commission's Energy Directorate said recently the EU executive was “open to finding solutions” and ready to show pragmatism. Brussels-watchers have interpreted this as meaning it now has no objections to turning the draft regulation into a directive. However, NGOs such as Bellona and Seas At Risk, have complained that so far policymakers have spent more time debating the law's legal basis rather than its substance and that a directive represents “the ‘business as usual’ approach advocated by the oil and gas industry”.

Another pending issue has to do with polluters' financial ability to pay for the costs of clean-up and compensation in case of an accident. At present, no existing financial security instruments such as insurance seem to be adequate. The Commission has launched two studies, including on risk pooling by operators, but these will not be finalised until next year. NGOs say the legislative proposal must anticipate the adoption of detailed rules on financial security.

The extension of the directive or regulation to the overseas operations of EU companies will be debated when the European Parliament returns to the issue after the summer recess.

European Parliament: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/itre/home.html; Seas at Risk statement: http://www.seas-at-risk.org.

Opposition grows on drug EQSs

MEPs are being urged to reject the setting of limit values for three controversial pharmaceutical substances under EU water legislation. MEP Richard Seeber says the substances should be included in a revised list of priority substances for EU water bodies proposed by the European Commission but should not have set limits.

Amending the Commission's list of priority substances in this way would undermine “the scientific integrity and transparency of the technical prioritisation process”, says Mr Seeber. He is worried about the effect that environmental quality standards for two substances used in contraceptive pills (EE2 and E2) and anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac would have on EU health policy. Many EU governments also have concerns about the inclusion of these substances on the list.

In its draft directive put forward at the end of January, the Commission also sought to add 12 other substances to the list, six of which would be classified as priority hazardous substances.⁷ Another proposal consists of introducing stricter EQSs for four substances that are already on the list. Some countries believe that the scientific justifications given by the Commission are insufficient. The EU executive contests this argument, insisting its proposals are based on a thorough assessment of the situation.

In his report, Mr Seeber backs the Commission's creation of a mandatory ‘watch list’ of chemicals that might pose environmental or health risks but wants a four-year time limit so member states are not required to monitor their levels indefinitely. He also recommends seven substances are added to the list including the drug ibuprofen and antibacterial agent triclosan. Any new environmental quality standards set at this stage should be incorporated in the next round of national river basin management plans and met by 2021.

Mr Seeber is concerned about how changes to the list of priority substances will affect public perception of water quality. He also makes a number of suggestions about how the new standards should be incorporated into water quality reports.

MEPs in the Environment Committee will discuss the report in September.

European Parliament: http://www.europarl.europa.eu

Environmental quality

Arctic a strategic commitment for the EU

The strategic importance of the Arctic to the EU is emphasized in a new paper setting out the EU's policy for the region. The EU remains committed to safeguarding the Arctic environment through research, international partnerships and the promotion of green technologies in the extractive industries, the report says.

Actions taken since the adoption of a 2008 paper have delivered “tangible progress”, the report notes, but a broader approach is now needed, promoting economic growth while maintaining environmental protection. The new approach is partly due to the expected accession of Iceland and also to increasing economic links to the USA, Russia, Greenland and Canada. Retreating sea ice and technological progress is allowing the expansion of mining, oil extraction and fishing. The northern sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans is expected to be ten times busier this year than it was in 2010.

The EU and private sector will fund the development of mining technologies with less environmental risk. The European Commission is also supporting work by the Arctic Council and the International Maritime Organization to improve the safety of shipping in the region. And it will further explore the development of green energy. Europe is also working to establish a network of marine protected areas through the OSPAR Convention and assess the suitability of existing controls on oil and gas activities, given the region's hostile and fragile environment.

Meanwhile, temperatures are rising on the opposite side of the Arctic as a coalition of environmental groups filed a lawsuit against Shell over drilling off the North Slope of Alaska. The groups – including Earthjustice, the Natural Resources Defense Council, and the Sierra Club – are challenging the Interior Department's approval of Shell's plans for responding to a potential spill.

Shell raised environmentalists' ire even further when it asked EPA to loosen air pollution requirements for its Discoverer drill rig operating off Alaska. In its application to the Agency, Shell said the Discoverer cannot meet the requirements for nitrogen oxide and ammonia emissions under an air permit granted in January. Greenpeace's Executive Director, Phil Radford, said the move was “a classic bait-and-switch. Shell promises… anything that will allow it to get permits to drill the Arctic, and then at the last minute, says it won't abide by its agreement and wants the EPA to issue watered-down permits with no process whatsoever”.

European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/sea_basins/arctic_ocean/; EPA: http://www.epa.gov.

US announces next steps in restoring the Everglades

Federal agencies in the US are to provide a further $80 million to support farmers and ranchers who voluntarily conserve wetlands on agricultural land in the Northern Everglades Watershed. This new investment, part of the US Department of Agriculture's Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP), will restore an additional 23 000 acres of wetlands vital to water quality and wildlife habitat in the Everglades system.

Over the last four years the Obama administration has invested over $1.5 billion in Everglades projects and initiatives that will make a measurable impact on the ground. These include nearly $900 million to jump start key construction projects that will restore water flow and essential habitat.

“President Obama has made restoring the iconic Everglades a national priority,” said US Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack. “Restoring these wetlands demonstrates a strong commitment to partnerships with ranchers and farmers to improve water quality and habitat protection while supporting Florida's strong agricultural economy and ranching heritage. These investments are paying off, creating nearly 7000 jobs in Florida's economy and preserving thousands of acres of precious wetlands for future generations to enjoy.”

Working in partnership with the State of Florida, tribes and local leaders, since 2009, the Administration has restored more than 3000 acres of the floodplains along the Kissimmee River and worked with landowners to improve habitat and water quality on more than 400 000 agricultural acres. It has also begun to implement key components of the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan to make more water available for environmental, urban and agricultural use. An historic agreement with the State of Florida will make essential water quality improvements, including $879 million in State commitments for water quality projects.

The Whitehouse: http://www.whitehouse.gov

Satellites track long-term trends

Satellite measurements show that nitrogen dioxide in the lower atmosphere has fallen over the past decade over parts of Europe and the US, but increased in the Middle East and parts of Asia. These and other results were discussed at the recent Advances in Atmospheric Science and Applications conference in Bruges, Belgium, which reviewed how more than 15 years of atmospheric observations have revealed trends in air quality.

Satellite observations in this field began with the launch of the ERS-2 satellite in 1995 and its GOME instrument, originally designed for monitoring atmospheric ozone. Monitoring continued with the Sciamachy sensor on Envisat, OMI on NASA's Aura and GOME-2 on Eumetsat's MetOp. Over the years, these observations have shown a steady decrease in nitrogen dioxide levels in the US and Europe, but increases elsewhere.

“The changes observed from space can be explained by two effects: increased use of fossil fuels in evolving economies, leading to increased pollution and improvements in technology – like cleaner cars – leading to reduced pollution,” explained Andreas Richter, a scientist with the Institute of Environmental Physics at the University of Bremen. “These changes in pollution levels are surprisingly rapid, and satellites are the only way to monitor them globally. For this, the long-term availability of satellite instruments that can monitor pollution is of key importance.”

In California, urban areas showed a consistent drop in nitrogen dioxide. “Airborne and ground-based measurements supported the findings from the satellite data,” said Si-Wan Kim from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “The satellite measurements are now being used to improve California's emission inventory.”

Organised by ESA, the conference looked at the remote sensing of trace gases in the atmosphere, clouds and aerosols, greenhouse gases and air quality monitoring. Beside the scientific exploitation of satellite data, the conference also focused on how information from past Earth observation missions can complement current data for climate monitoring.

The use of current mission data for defining future missions and exploitation programmes is also important. The Sentinel-4 and -5 missions being developed under Europe's Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES) programme will continue to provide measurements of atmospheric chemistry, enabling the development of services especially for monitoring air quality over Europe.

European Space Agency: http://www.esa.int

Chemical hazards

Pesticide derogations open to abuse

Campaign group PAN Europe is calling for an overhaul of the EU's emergency derogation system for banned pesticides after an investigation found few details of the 230 derogations granted last year. It wants more information on the intended applications of pesticides approved through the system, the volumes used and any safety measures put in place.

The 120-day derogations are meant to be granted where there are no viable alternatives but some appear to relate to substances, such as the soil fumigant dichloropropene, for which this is not the case, says PAN Europe. The same derogations are also made repeatedly year after year, suggesting the situation is not really an emergency, it adds. France relied most on the system, claiming 32 derogations in 2011, PAN Europe says. Greece and Portugal were the other top users.

European pesticide association ECPA said the European Commission is currently developing guidance on the use of the emergency derogation system, a move which it believes will increase transparency. A more efficient pesticide approval process would also help reduce reliance on the emergency system, it added.

PAN-Europe has also criticised the level of pesticide resubmissions, which it says flouts EU health and environmental rules.⁸

Pan Europe: http://www.pan-europe.info/

REACH brings limited innovation

REACH, the EU's controversial chemicals management regime, has limited benefits in terms of innovation, consultants say. The regulatory burden placed on firms has tended to draw staff and funds away from more innovative work, according to the study, although increased innovation can be expected in the longer term.

Overall, 43% of companies think the regulation has had a negative impact on innovation. Only 13% reported a positive impact. At the moment, the Candidate List⁹ is having the biggest effect, forcing companies to consider substitutes, and the Community Rolling Action Plan is creating a similar pressure.¹⁰ The authorisation and restriction processes have had less impact as they tend to affect fewer firms.

The study makes a number of recommendations including the provision of more support at national level, more predictability on the substances added to the Candidate List and reduced obligations for smaller firms.

The study, by consultancy CSES, is one of several feeding into the European Commission's review of REACH.¹¹ Another study has criticised the overlaps between REACH and other areas of EU legislation.¹² The review was due to be completed in June but has been extended into the autumn.

European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/chemicals/documents/reach/review2012/innovation_en.htm,

BPA is not the ticket

Sweden's campaign against bisphenol-A (BPA) continues, with Kemi, the national chemicals agency, recommending that the government ban the substance from till receipts and other thermal paper products such as tickets.

Earlier this year, the Swedish government decided to ban BPA from children's food and drinks packaging and at the same time asked Kemi to consider the need for restrictions on thermal papers.¹³ The French government and environmental campaigners have also highlighted what they say are excessive risks from BPA.¹⁴

In its response, Kemi says there is little information on the role that thermal papers play in BPA exposure but recommends a precautionary approach is taken nonetheless. There are 17 alternatives to BPA that can be used as colour developers in thermal papers, five of which are currently available in Sweden, the agency says.

KEMI: http://www.kemi.se

Public and occupational health

Diesel exhaust is carcinogenic: official

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), an agency of the World Health Organization based in Lyon, France, has issued a new evaluation of whether exhaust emissions from diesel and gasoline engines are human carcinogens. Based on the review of a large number of epidemiological, toxicological, and mechanistic studies of older diesel engines and gasoline engines, an IARC expert panel concluded that diesel exhaust is a Group 1, or known, human carcinogen and gasoline exhaust is a Group 2B, or possible, human carcinogen.

Diesel engines have evolved over the past 25 years, the IARC says, in response to regulations in the United States, Europe, and elsewhere, from “traditional” (unregulated) engines to “transitional” engines (regulated 1988–2006) to “new-technology” diesel engines and fuels.

This new technology, first introduced in 2006–2007 in the United States and more recently in Europe, integrates ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel with new catalyzed diesel particulate filters and diesel oxidation catalysts. Based on results from the Advanced Collaborative Emissions Study (ACES) run by the US-based Health Effects Institute (HEI),¹⁵ the panel noted that on a per-km basis, particulate mass emissions from engines using this new technology have been reduced by over 99% and nitrogen oxide (NO_x) emissions by 98% compared with traditional diesel engines.

The IARC based its broader diesel review on epidemiologic studies of workers exposed to diesel exhaust from the 1940s through to the 1980s, and on studies of animals exposed to engines built with 1980s and 1990s technology, as well as on some studies of human exposures in the 1990s and early 2000s. The panelists based their review of gasoline exhaust on a limited number of animal and laboratory studies.

“We are pleased that IARC considered HEI's research on both older and new diesel technologies and fuels in its review,” said HEI President Dan Greenbaum. “It is clear that in much of the world the older diesel technology, on which the IARC panel based its review, is still in widespread use. IARC's determination will help encourage adoption of the fuel and technology improvements in more countries.”

IARC: http://www.iarc.fr; HEI: http://www.healtheffects.org

New evidence links ozone to heart attacks

Young, healthy adult volunteers exposed for two hours to ozone developed physiological changes associated with cardiovascular ailments, according to a study by EPA scientists.

Study participants showed evidence of vascular inflammation, a potential reduced ability to dissolve artery-blocking blood clots, and changes in the autonomic nervous system that controls the heart's rhythm. The changes were temporary and reversible in these young, healthy participants. Recent epidemiological studies have reported associations between acute exposure to ozone and death but little is known about the underlying physiological pathways responsible.

“This study provides a plausible explanation for the link between acute ozone exposure and death,” said Dr Robert B. Devlin, the study's lead author and senior scientist at the EPA's National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, N.C.

Devlin and colleagues focused on a single, short-term exposure and not the effects of years of exposure to ozone. Researchers exposed 23 volunteers, aged 19 to 33, to 0.3 parts per million (ppm) of ozone. The dose was higher than the EPA's eight hour ozone standard of 0.076 ppm. However, a person breathing 0.3 ppm for two hours receives roughly the same amount of ozone as does a person breathing the lower 0.076 ppm for eight hours, Devlin noted.

Participants recorded an increase in blood levels of interleukin-1 beta, a signature marker of inflammation that appears to play a key role in heart disease. Also noted was a decrease in plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and plasminogen, components that play an important role in dissolving blood clots that may form along arterial walls. Some participants also had a change in heart rhythm, indicating altered autonomic nervous system control of heart rate.

Other recent research has identified similar risks from poor air quality in relation to strokes.¹⁶

American Heart Association: http://newsroom.heart.org

Research activities

Nanoparticles combat marine fouling

Tiny vanadium pentoxide (V₂O₅) nanoparticles can inhibit the growth of barnacles, bacteria, and algae on surfaces in contact with water, such as ship hulls, sea buoys, or offshore platforms, scientists say. The discovery by researchers at Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz (JGU) in Germany could lead to the development of new protective, antifouling coatings and paints that are less damaging to the environment than the products currently used.

The experiments showed that steel plates applied with a coating containing dispersed vanadium pentoxide particles could be exposed to seawater for weeks without the formation of fouling deposits. In comparison, plates that were coated only with the ship's normal paint exhibited massive fouling after exposure to seawater for the same period of time.

Marine fouling costs the shipping industry more than $200 billion per year. The accumulation of organisms, such as algae, mussels and barnacles, increases the objects' water resistance and consequently, fuel consumption. This means additional costs for shipping companies as well as extra CO₂ emissions. While it is possible to counteract this effect to some extent through the use of antifouling paints, conventional biocides have limited effect and can have adverse environmental consequences (see for example the recent biocides directive¹⁷). In addition, microorganisms can develop resistance to them.

Professor Dr Wolfgang Tremel of JGU's Institute of Inorganic Chemistry and Analytical Chemistry was inspired to investigate after observing that certain enzymes found in brown and red algae produce halogen compounds that have a biocidal potential. It is assumed that these are synthesized by the algae to protect them against microbial attack and predators. The JGU team decided to mimic this process using V₂O₅ nanoparticles.

Vanadium pentoxide functions as a catalyst so that hydrogen peroxide and bromide – both of which are present in seawater – combine to form small quantities of hypobromous acid. This is highly toxic to many microorganisms and has a pronounced antibacterial effect but has only very minimal consequences for the environment because the effect is restricted to micro-surfaces. The metallic oxide is particularly potent in the form of nanoparticles because the larger surface area enhances the catalytic effect.

“Vanadium pentoxide nanoparticles, due to their poor solubility and the fact that they are embedded in the coating, are considerably less toxic to marine life than are the tin- and copper-based active substances used in the commercially available products,” explained Wolfgang Tremel. In his view, ships' coatings based on V₂O₅ could be a practical and cost-effective alternative to conventional chemical biocides. “Here we have an environmentally compatible component for a new generation of antifouling paints that employ the natural defence mechanism used by marine organisms.”

W. Tremel, et al., Vanadium pentoxide nanoparticles mimic vanadium haloperoxidases and thwart biofilm formation, Nat. Nanotechnol., 2012, DOI: 10.1038/NNANO.2012.91.

Scientists must engage more with society

Researchers should redouble their efforts to engage with policymakers and society in general if science is to overcome criticism, win public trust and recover from “an ambiguous situation”. This was the key message from a debate on Science in Society (SiS) initiatives at the recent Euroscience Open Forum (ESOF) 2012 conference in Dublin.

Organised by the European Science Foundation (ESF), the ‘Science in Society Relationships’ session called for a strengthening of SiS activities across the board. Society has changed much under the influence of science and technology. But it seems that, following the endeavour of growth after the Second World War, science now finds itself in an ambiguous situation. On the one hand, research promises a better future, yet on the other, new criticism arises from many sides and provokes a decrease of trust in science by the public.

The accompanying report aims to highlight the role of science in society, to raise awareness of how scientific knowledge is translated into society and to encourage better practice in the relationship between science and society. Dr Jean-Pierre Alix from the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), who helped author the study, commented: “An effective knowledge-based society requires greater interaction with, and awareness of, research opportunities and initiatives across all sectors of society. Researchers should be acutely aware that these activities are valuable in developing science for the future generation.”

Science agencies should make a clear commitment to SiS in science policy and strategy, the report notes. “Transparent SiS processes” must be put in place within research funding and performing bodies, and must be seen as an essential and central part of a researcher's work. Researchers and research groups must be properly rewarded for their work in this area, and more experiments concerning instruments, activities and methods should be encouraged. The report also calls for experience and best practice to be shared through networks for exchange within Europe on a regular basis. Networks to jointly develop systems for indicators, evaluations and measurements are also needed.

A practical example of this comes in separate research by Lancaster University in the UK, which calls for greater societal engagement on climate change issues. The researchers led by Professor Nick Hewitt from the Lancaster Environment Centre propose a new way of considering society's reactions to global warming by linking societal actions to temperature change. Using this framework to analyse policies aimed at avoiding dangerous climate change, they suggest that society will have to become fifty times more responsive to global temperature change than it has been since 1990.

The International Council for Science has recently called for scientists to take a more active role in sustainability debates.¹⁸

European Science Foundation: “Science in Society: a Challenging Frontier for Science Policy”, http://www.esf.org/publications.html; A. J. Jarvis, D. T. Leedal and C. N. Hewitt, Climate-society feedbacks and the avoidance of dangerous climate change, Nat. Clim. Change, DOI: 10.1038/nclimate1586.

EU boosts green funding for 2013

The EU will devote €330m to environmental research next year, including €155m to improve the sustainability of the marine sector and €98m for freshwater resources, according to the European Commission. Some €365m will also be spent on research into smart cities.

The funding is part of the €8.1bn total to be allocated in 2013 under the EU's Seventh Research Framework Programme (FP7). Grants will be awarded through calls for proposals that will be issued over the next few months. They are expected to help raise an additional €6bn of public and private investment in research and to create 210 000 jobs in the short term. About 15% of the FP7 funding for 2013 will be allocated to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to support innovation in areas such as bio-based technologies.

This will be the final funding round under FP7, which has run since 2007. For the follow-on period, the Commission is proposing to spend €80bn on research between 2014 and 2020.^19,20 A large chunk of this will be dedicated to low-carbon technologies, including carbon capture and storage projects. The EU aims to spend 3% of its GDP on research by 2020.

In addition, the Commission has awarded €268.4m to 202 environmental projects under the latest round of the EU's LIFE+ co-financing programme. The successful projects, chosen from 1078 applications, will receive contributions from EU states and other sources, raising the total funding pot to €516.5m. Seventy-six of the projects promote nature conservation and biodiversity and 113 are related to environmental policy and technology development, including 23 focused on climate change and 29 on waste. The remaining 13 projects, with a total budget of €16.2m, will publicise environmental issues and provide training. Negotiations on the future of the 20 year-old LIFE+ programme are still ongoing.²¹

European Commission: http://europa.eu/rapid/ (FP7 ref: MEMO/12/528; LIFE+ ref: IP/12/812); and http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/funding/lifeplus2012/index.htm

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