Environmental digest

Legislation

Ministers agree on 7EAP; remain divided on CAP

Europe's Seventh Environmental Action Plan (7EAP) should have the green economy as a key motivation, ministers have agreed. Conclusions on the content of the 7EAP were discussed at a recent meeting of environment ministers in Luxembourg. The European Commission will publish a draft of the plan later this year.

The ministers' final text says the 7EAP should focus on three areas: better implementation of existing environmental legislation; the transition to a green economy; and new initiatives for issues not well-addressed by current legislation, namely climate adaptation, biodiversity, sustainable cities and chemicals. This is largely in line with the Commission's proposal.¹ The reference to chemicals relates to outstanding issues such as endocrine disruption, nanotechnology and chemical mixtures.

The agreement was reached after a debate over references to the EU's low-carbon roadmap and caveats around wording on future targets. The original text, which was twice blocked by Poland, called for the EU's long-term environmental vision to 2050 to take the roadmap "into account". In the end, this was replaced with a reference to the Council's previous conclusions on the development of a low-carbon strategy. Danish Environment Minister Ida Auken told journalists she was "especially proud" that the level of ambition remained high despite the financial situation.

However, no such consensus was forthcoming on proposals to green the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP). A progress report prepared by the Danish EU presidency and presented to a separate meeting of agriculture ministers says Member States remain sharply divided on the issue. None of the three “flexibility options” currently on the table seem to have won the support of a majority of EU members.² Some countries, including Romania and the Czech Republic, prefer the 'menu' approach. Others, including the UK and Sweden, want funds to be transferred from the CAP's first pillar to finance green measures under its second pillar. There is also some support for the third option, which involves integrating the Commission's proposed green requirements into the cross-compliance rules for European farmers.

Tony Long of WWF criticised the approach. "This report shows that a real greening of the CAP was never seriously on the table. The result is we get locked in to a business-as-usual agriculture until the next reforms in seven years time – the worst possible outcome".

European Council: http://www.consilium.europa.eu

EPA tightens PM_2.5 standard

EPA is proposing to update its national air quality standards for fine particle pollution (PM_2.5). A recent federal court ruling required EPA to update the standard based on best available science.

EPA's proposal would strengthen the annual health standard for PM_2.5 to within a range of 12–13 micrograms per cubic metre. The current annual standard is 15 micrograms per cubic metre. The Agency says the proposed changes are based on an extensive body of scientific evidence, including advice from its independent science advisors. Many large studies show negative health impacts at lower levels than previously understood. Around 99% of US counties are projected to meet the proposed standard without any additional action. The proposal does not affect the existing daily standards for either fine particles or coarse particles (PM₁₀), both of which would remain unchanged.

On a related theme, a recent research report describes a study to assess the use of satellite-based measurements from NASA satellites in modelling PM_2.5 concentrations in the eastern United States. Dr. Christopher Paciorek and colleagues developed statistical models for integrating monitoring, satellite, and geographic information system (GIS) data to estimate monthly ambient PM_2.5 concentrations and used those models to estimate monthly average PM_2.5 concentrations. They then developed and applied statistical methods to quantify how uncertainties in exposure estimates based on ground-level monitoring data might be reduced.

EPA: http://www.epa.gov/pm; “Assessment and Statistical Modeling of the Relationship Between Satellite-Based Estimates and Measurements of PM_2.5 in the Eastern United States”, HEI Research Report 167, Paciorek, Christopher J. and Yang Liu, http://pubs.healtheffects.org

Time to shout up on noise policy

Stakeholders are being asked to give their views on the effectiveness of the 2002 environmental noise directive and other EU noise policies under a consultation organised by the European Commission.

The consultation, which runs until 25 September, is the follow-up to an implementation report on the directive published last summer and seeks views on some of its proposals.³ These include the possible imposition of EU-wide noise limits or trigger values, and noise labels for road vehicles and houses.

Timetables for any future action have not yet been decided. The consultation has taken some time to develop for internal reasons but the Commission's general approach has not changed since last year, an official said.

European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/consultations/noise_en.htm

Environmental quality

Rio delivers a damp squib

The much-heralded Rio+20 conference on sustainable development ended with a whimper, rather than a bang, with campaigners and politicians both critical of the outcomes. Despite the prolonged preparations, many see the talks as achieving little of lasting consequence either for the environment or for reducing poverty. Against the background of the euro crisis and the American presidential election, the meeting attracted scant media attention.

On the positive side, the final declaration commits governments to take action to significantly cut marine litter by 2025, a relatively late addition which was not in the 'zero draft' put forward in January.⁴ The final text also includes stronger wording on the UN's Convention on Law of the Seas (UNCLOS), with governments being urged to implement it in full. As part of the ‘Beyond GDP’ principle,^5,6 the UN Statistical Commission will work with other UN bodies to identify new global indicators of wealth that go beyond traditional economic measures. The Commission's work will draw on a range of assessments and pilot projects worldwide.

Negotiators also reached agreement on the need to reform international environmental governance, an issue that had previously proved divisive.⁷ In the end, they agreed to give the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) more powers and financial resources to fulfil its mandate. The body's new status will be approved in September. Among other institutional changes, the UN's Sustainable Development Commission (CSD) will be replaced by a high-level intergovernmental political forum that will oversee the transition towards greater sustainability. One of the options envisaged in the initial draft was to maintain the CSD in place.

EU officials pointed to references to the green economy being an "important tool" to achieve sustainable development. But the text stresses that "there are different approaches, visions, models and tools" available. Moreover, governments failed to agree targets and goals in a number of areas. For example, a call to phase out market-distorting and environmentally harmful subsidies including on fossil fuels was removed from the compromise text. This was strongly criticised by the EU. Europe had also hoped for a stronger commitment towards the adoption of Sustainable Development Goals. A multi-stakeholder working group will report to the UN's General Assembly on the development of such goals.

The three-day gathering of 191 UN members crowned a 10-day forum marking 20 years since the 1992 Earth Summit, where leaders vowed the world would live within its means. Aside from over 100 world leaders, the conference also attracted some 50 000 representatives of NGOs and others involved in shaping the sustainability debate. In a statement, UNEP said the event had “ended with a range of outcomes which, if embraced over the coming months and years, offer the opportunity to catalyze pathways towards a more sustainable 21st century”.

Leading environmental organizations were quick to condemn. Jim Leape, Director of WWF, said the "formal negotiations were by any measure a huge disappointment". "Governments didn't find a way to come together. There is a lot in the text about 'acknowledging problems' and 'encouraging countries to act,' but very little commitments. That falls way short of what is needed", he said. Others raised questions of continuing the UN negotiation process itself if this largest summit in UN history could not reach binding conclusions.

US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said the summit "marks a real advance for sustainable development. We know this is one of the most pressing matters of our time". She confirmed the United States would stump up $2 billion in funds, earmarked by Congress in 2011, to support clean energy programmes and projects in developing countries. This money could act as a powerful lever for luring private-sector investment, she said.

The UN said more than $513 billion has been "mobilized" in commitments for sustainable development by governments, businesses, civil society groups and others. But it gave no further details about the pledges, notably as to whether the funding was new, or about the criteria for considering the projects sustainable. Greens said a revolutionary chance to change a broken economic model had been wasted, while campaigners against poverty railed against greed and selfishness.

The woolly nature of the final communiqué contradicts UNEP's own findings. Its fifth Global Environmental Outlook report, published ahead of the Rio+20 meeting, notes that global treaties and agreements are most likely to succeed where backed by specific and quantifiable targets. The report assesses what it considers the 90 most important international sustainability objectives. Only four have seen substantial progress: elimination of ozone-depleting substances and leaded petrol, improving access to clean water, and research in cutting marine pollution.

Rio+20 Conference: http://www.uncsd2012.org; UNEP: http://www.unep.org; GEO report, http://www.unep.org/geo/geo5.asp; WWF: http://www.panda.org

Cleaner boilers essential to reducing PM_2.5

Stricter design standards for small domestic solid fuel boilers would cut emissions of fine particulates (PM_2.5) by 70% by 2030 according to European experts.

The figures were released at a Stakeholder Expert Group (SEG) meeting in Brussels as part of the EU's air quality policy review. The Group's members, who include NGO, business and government representatives, discussed the potential for further cuts in sectors such as shipping, farming and road transport.

A study by Austrian-based thinktank the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) says small sources such as coal-fired boilers and wood pellet stoves released about 600 000 tonnes of PM_2.5 in 2005, about a third of total EU emissions. Ecodesign experts are working on standards for small domestic boilers and a preparatory study was published earlier this year.

IIASA's Markus Amann said the emission reduction estimates for PM_2.5 may be unreliable because certain countries' inventories seriously underestimate particulate emissions. This is partly because they fail to account for burning coal waste. The EEA has also noted the limitations in the available data.⁸

Fine particulates is one of the few areas where there is consensus. The final results of a consultation released ahead of the meeting confirmed that SEG members have differing views on the review's level of ambition. Industry representatives prefer actions aimed at levelling the playing field by harmonising the implementation of existing legislation. But NGOs are pushing for tighter controls, with some wanting WHO guidelines to be made binding. Member State representatives tend to favour simplifying legislation and reducing the implementation burden.

Many agree that the EU should pay more attention to the most harmful particulates, such as black carbon, which is an increasing focus in air quality policy.⁹ Some NGOs even want standards for these pollutants. There is also general support among governments for a common air quality index, as in the United States. Such an index may go some way to improving public awareness, a key concern of NGOs.

Meanwhile, five members of the Norwegian Parliament are asking the government to demand clean-up of emissions from Russia's Norilsk Nickel smelting plant. The move follows a long history of dispute between the two countries over the plant, which is located just seven kilometres from Norway's border on Russia's Kola Peninsula.

European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/review_air_policy.htm; ecodesign studies: http://www.ecosolidfuel.org; Russian plant: http://www.bellona.org/articles/articles_2012/Nickel_parliament

Scientists must take more active role in sustainability debates

Ensuring a sustainable future in the face of inter-connected, human-induced challenges facing the Earth system urgently requires new knowledge and a new relationship between science and society, according to a science-based lobby group.

Representatives of the International Council for Science (ICSU) were addressing the Forum on Science, Technology and Innovation for Sustainable Development, a side event to the Rio+20 Conference. Over 500 scientists from 75 countries debated the latest scientific evidence around global environmental change and discussed ways to strengthen the contribution of science to policy decisions that ensure a more equitable and sustainable future.

“Scientific evidence shows convincingly that our way of development is undermining the resilience of our planet”, said ICSU President, Yuan Tseh Lee. “We must find a different path towards a safe and prosperous future. With all the knowledge and creativity we have, it is absolutely possible. But we are running out of time. We need real leadership, practical solutions, and concrete action to set our world on a sustainable path”.

Participants agreed that we are living in a time of unprecedented global environmental, social, financial, geo-political, and technological challenges. As a result, there is renewed pressure for science to be more relevant and effective at informing policy and implementation.

The Forum called for a new contract between science and society to inform policy related to sustainable development and build societal resilience to environmental risks. Scientists need to engage directly with society to ensure shared understanding of the new realities shaping our world, and help translate knowledge into action for sustainable development. A two-way dialogue between science and society is needed, to ensure research priorities are informed by societal needs.

Responding to these challenges, a new, 10-year global sustainability research initiative was launched at the Forum. ‘Future Earth’ will provide a cutting-edge platform to coordinate scientific research which is designed and produced in partnership with governments, business and, more broadly, society. The initiative is being jointly established and scientifically sponsored by an alliance that includes, among others, the ICSU, the International Social Science Council (ISSC), UNEP and UNESCO.

ICSU: http://www.icsu.org

Chemical hazards

Consumers at risk from pesticides

European consumers could be exposed to up to 30 different types of endocrine-disrupting pesticides in food, according to PAN Europe, an NGO. The organisation has launched a new campaign to highlight the issue.

The figure is based on annual data on pesticide residues compiled by the European Foods Safety Authority (EFSA). These show that 111 types of residue were found in sampled foods in 2009, the latest year for which published data exists.

Pesticides with endocrine-disrupting properties cannot be authorised under the 2009 pesticides regulation, but a definition may not be proposed until December 2013. PAN Europe says this is symptomatic of the EU's slow action on the issue and has used lists of EDCs compiled by Sweden's chemicals agency (KEMI) and academics to conduct its analysis. Lettuce has the most endocrine disruptors, it says, followed by tomatoes, cucumbers and apples. A review of the EU's EDC strategy is currently underway^10,11 and a recent study highlighted the multi-million euro illegal trade in pesticides in Europe.¹²

Meanwhile, the French government is proposing to ban Cruiser OSR, a pesticide made by Swiss agro-chemical group Syngenta that is widely used to treat rapeseed crops after scientists suggested it could pose danger to bees. The decision was based on a report from French health and safety agency ANSES, which went along with recent scientific findings suggesting that a sub-lethal dose of thiamethoxam, a molecule contained in Cruiser, made bees more likely to lose their way and die. A sharp decline in bee populations across the world in recent years, partly due to a phenomenon known as Colony Collapse Disorder, has prompted criticism of pesticide use, although research has yet to show clearly the causes of falling bee numbers.¹³

PAN-Europe: http://www.pan-europe.info; campaign website, http://www.disruptingfood.info

REACH lists grow longer

The number of chemicals identified for special treatment under the EU's REACH chemicals policy grows ever longer as the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) extends its scrutiny.

Firstly, ECHA is proposing a further ten substances for possible authorisation under REACH. A consultation on its draft recommendations will run until 19 September. The Agency is asking consultees whether any uses should be exempted from authorisation requirements and what dates they should apply from. There are already 14 substances on the REACH authorisation list, which means any firm wanting to use them after a set date must seek authorisation from ECHA. Decisions on another 13 recommendations are due next year.

The proposed additions include: technical MDA, a formaldehyde-based product used as a curing agent for polymers and as a hardener in epoxy resins and adhesives; arsenic acid, mainly used in the manufacture of speciality glass and copper foil for printed circuit boards; bis(2-methoxyethyl) ether (DIGLYME) and n,n-dimethylacetamide (DMAC), both solvents; and various chromate substances. After the consultation, ECHA will finalise its recommendations and submit them to the European Commission for approval.

A second, separate process relates to the so-called ‘candidate list’ of substances of very high concern (SVHCs). Here ECHA has added 13 new SVHCs, bringing the full candidate list to 84 substances, with more due to be added at the end of the year.¹⁴ The additions include four dyes, which will only qualify if the concentration of the impurities Michler's ketone or Michler's base is 0.1% or higher. Two other listings – for aluminosilicate refractory ceramic fibres and zirconia aluminosilicate refractory ceramic fibres – extend earlier additions. Two new entries, both put forward by Germany, are for n-pentyl-isopentylphthalate and various forms of 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid; Germany's notification lists them as carcinogenic, mutagenic or reprotoxic (CMR).

CMR substances are listed in an annex to the EU's Classification, Labelling and Packaging (CLP) regulation. According to ECHA, about 60% of this list has either been registered or notified as being placed on the market. The analysis is based on a review of more than 25 000 REACH registrations and 3.5 million CLP notifications. ECHA was able to identify 665 of the 1116 CMRs with numerical codes listed in the so-called annex VI of the CLP regulation. Of the remaining 40%, ECHA says many substances may no longer be manufactured or sold in the EU, having been replaced by less toxic alternatives.

ECHA has also begun to disclose information submitted under the EU's previous chemicals regime. Until now, the Agency's dissemination tool has not included substances notified under the NONS directive. The information will be released in various stages to give NONS registrants time to adapt the various parts of their dossiers to the REACH format.

A review of REACH by Umweltbundesamt (UBA), Germany's influential Federal Environment Agency, concludes the scheme made a positive impact in its first five years. UBA President Jochen Flasbarth said REACH “provides the foundation for more effective regulation of chemicals”. However, the Agency criticised the quality of some substance dossiers. “The lack of data compromises one of the most important objectives of REACH – that is, to reliably assess the risks posed to mankind and the environment by chemicals”, said Mr Flasbarth.

ECHA: http://echa.europa.eu/

Agency to flush away DCB

Toilet blocks and air fresheners made of the carcinogen 1,4-dichlorobenzene (DCB) would be banned under a proposal put forward by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA).

ECHA developed the proposal after a 2010 consultancy report recommended the substance's restriction under REACH. The restriction would cover all toilet blocks, air fresheners used in domestic settings and public and office toilets. This should limit exposure among toilet attendants and the public, and goes further than consultancy recommendations. Industrial use, such as in sewers and waste-collection-containers, would not be affected.

ECHA says the EU uses around 800 tonnes of DCB a year and in some cases cheaper alternatives are available. The restriction will cost the EU €1.2m per year, it estimates, but the savings from improved health are expected to be between 9 and 22 times higher. The restriction would apply a year after being added to REACH's annex XVII.

The consultation will run until 19 December.

ECHA: http://echa.europa.eu

New tool aims to inform risk assessment

Hazardous chemicals are highly problematic from a health and environmental point of view, however their production and use also entail huge financial risks. Financial investors who want to avoid that risk can put pressure on companies to move away from hazardous chemicals, and to open up and be more transparent about their chemicals management. A new tool developed by ChemSec, an NGO that campaigns on chemicals, aims to enable financial investors to assess the performance of the chemical industry more easily.

Financial investors have a unique possibility to influence the development of companies, and can request information from chemical producers before investing in them, ChemSec says. From a financial investor's perspective, the production and use of hazardous chemicals entail huge financial risks. These can take the form of production plant accidents, product recalls, increased costs associated with reformulating products due to stricter regulations, health implications for workers or consumers, or damaged corporate brand reputation.

ChemSec claims its Chemicals Criteria Catalogue is the first of its kind to cover all aspects of chemical risks and opportunities for chemical manufacturers, and entails a set of 38 indicators.

ChemSec: http://www.chemsec.org

Experts reject phthalates ban

An expert committee has rejected a Danish proposal to restrict articles containing a combination of four phthalates under REACH.¹⁵ ECHA's Risks Assessment Committee (RAC) said the ban was unnecessary.

Exposure to the phthalates (DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP) has fallen steadily over the past decade, the Committee said, and will be cut further by new authorisation requirements. But it suggested biomonitoring and monitoring of the substances' use. This is the first time the Committee has ruled against a proposed restriction since it was established under the 2006 REACH regulation.

A spokeswoman for the Danish Environmental Protection Agency said it was disappointed by the RAC's opinion but pleased the Committee accepted in principle the combined approach proposed by Denmark. There is an ongoing debate in the EU about how best to address chemical mixtures.^16,17

ECHA: http://echa.europa.eu

Fly ash is not ‘LOW’ risk

Power sector association Eurelectric has raised serious concern over a European Commission proposal to revise the EU's list of wastes (known as LOW), which it says could lead to coal fly ash being classified as hazardous waste.

In a position paper issued as part of a consultation, the trade association points out that the by-product of electricity generation is currently classified as non-toxic under waste law, REACH and CLP rules. Changing its status in the LOW list would have a negative impact on the construction industry which uses coal fly ash as an alternative to cement, Eurelectric says. This goes against the spirit of the EU's resource efficiency roadmap and efforts to reduce CO2 emissions, and would also increase disposal costs, it adds.

The association also complains that stakeholders were given insufficient time to assess the proposal's full implications. A technical working group will now discuss the proposal and stakeholder reactions before an amended LOW list is adopted later this year.

European Commission: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/framework/list.htm and LOW: http://scp.eionet.europa.eu/definitions/low; Eurelectric: http://www.eurelectric.org

Public and occupational health

Obama acts to close ethnic gap on asthma

Federal agencies in the US have unveiled a plan to address the disproportionately high levels of asthma in children from ethnic minorities and children living below poverty level.

Nearly 26 million Americans are affected by this chronic respiratory disease, including 7 million children. Asthma rates of African American children are currently 16%, more than double the rate of their Caucasian counterparts. The annual economic cost of asthma, including direct medical costs from hospital stays and indirect costs such as lost school and work days, amounts to approximately $56 billion.

The Coordinated Federal Action Plan to Reduce Racial and Ethnic Asthma Disparities has been launched by the White House Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other federal agencies.

“Across America we see low-income and minority children and families at a disproportionately higher risk for asthma and respiratory illnesses. Air pollution and other challenges are having serious health effects, which compound economic challenges through medical bills and missed school and work days”, said EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson.

The action plan will coordinate efforts to improve asthma management and prevention. It will help reduce barriers to asthma care, including access to medical services, education and environmental interventions. It will also build local capacity to deliver integrated, community-based asthma care systems. Children, families and communities most impacted by asthma disparities will be targeted for services. And prevention efforts will be accelerated by increasing understanding of the causes of asthma and testing interventions that may prevent its onset.

Children's Task Force: http://www.epa.gov/childrenstaskforce

POPs may contribute to illness and weight

Lack of physical activity and poor diet alone cannot explain the dramatic rise in obesity and diabetes occurring in many countries, believe some researchers. Dr Jerome Ruzzin, a post-doctoral researcher at the University of Bergen says persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may play a major role.

Dr Ruzzin points to the prevalence in Western populations of metabolic syndrome, the name for a group of risk factors – such as being overweight and insulin resistance – that occur together and increase the risk for coronary artery disease, stroke, and type-2 diabetes. While both genetics and environmental factors such as diet and physical exercise play a part, Dr Ruzzin believes POPs have much more of a health impact than most people realise.

POPs enter the body as a result of consuming fatty foods such as dairy products, meat, and particularly fatty fish. Dr Ruzzin has shown that mice fed on salmon containing high levels of POPs can go on to develop insulin resistance, one of the main causes of metabolic syndrome. “A great number of studies are now showing that people with high concentrations of POPs in their body are developing metabolic syndrome. We are talking about ordinary people who live in normal environments”, stresses Ruzzin, “so this means that we are being exposed to far too high levels of POPs that may have a major impact on our health”.

Typically, dietary changes are prescribed to treat metabolic syndrome. But according to Dr Ruzzin, too little is known about the effects of pollutants in specific foods to make any detailed health recommendations. He is also concerned about the ‘cocktail effect’, whereby POPs interact with other POPs or hazardous substances with serious consequences. We need greater attention to the combination of pollutants and nutrients in humans, according to Dr Ruzzin.

Research Council of Norway: http://www.forskningsradet.no.

Research activities

Inventors take up the health challenge

US inventors are being invited to develop a new generation of personal air pollution and health sensors in a competition organised by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and other federal partners. The US challenge, called My Air, My Health (MAMH), offers awards for the invention of personal, portable sensors that measure air pollution and a person's physiological response to pollution.

“Men, women, children – we're all different, and our bodies react in different ways to pollution and other harmful toxins in our environment”, said Linda Birnbaum, NIEHS Director. “We believe pairing health researchers with technology innovators will help us get the tools we need for a more complete picture of what people are breathing and how it might affect their health”.

Entrants are being asked to propose designs for sensors that can be easily worn or carried, and take into account a known or plausible link between airborne pollutants and health measurements (such as heart rate and breathing) in certain individuals or communities. The proposals should also address how to make the collected health and environmental data available to researchers, public health institutions, and other interested parties.

Four finalists will each receive $15 000 and will be invited to develop their proposals into working prototypes. One of the four finalists will then be awarded $100 000 for the most effective solution.

MAMH Challenge: http://challenge.gov/HHS/372-my-air-my-health-challenge

Retreating glaciers threaten biodiversity

The projected disappearance of small glaciers worldwide is a threat not just to water supply for numerous towns in valleys, such as the Ecuadorian capital Quito, but also to freshwater fauna, researchers say. According to a study published in Nature Climate Change, the local and regional diversity of mountain aquatic fauna will be reduced considerably if predictions are realised. Until now, the impact of global thawing on biodiversity in watercourses had never been calculated.

An international team led by France's Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD) focused on the future for populations in streams formed by meltwater in the Alps, Alaska and the equatorial Andes. “High mountain regions are like isolated islets, migration by new species is restricted and they are favourable to speciation”, said the IRD's Olivier Dangles.

In Ecuador the team collected samples from around fifty different sites in the páramos – highly specialised herbaceous ecosystems typical of Andean summits, situated at over 3500 m in altitude between the limits of the forest and the permanent snowline. They were able to analyse the reaction of three key elements to the changes in glacial coverage: the local taxonomic diversity (the number of different species present in a stream, for example), or at a regional level (across a hydrographic network, for example), and the variation in this diversity between watercourses.

According to these tests, in addition to data from aquatic population studies dating back over 20 years, as soon as the glacial coverage is reduced to the point where it covers only 30 to 50% of the drainage basin, several species begin to disappear. And if the glaciers melted completely, between 11 and 38% of the regional diversity might become extinct, depending on the area being studied, including endemic species.

The ecological role played by the majority of invertebrates under threat in glacial rivers is still not well known. The insects play a major role in the functioning of mountain ecosystems, particularly through decomposition of organic matter that enables soil to be formed. They can also be useful downstream, for the 2 million inhabitants of Quito, for example. The consequences at higher trophic levels, such as for fish, amphibians, birds and mammals, are difficult to predict, the researchers say. “These exceptional ecosystems seem to be condemned to disappear, even before they have had the chance to offer up all of their secrets”, said Dangles.

The IRD research is the latest in a number of studies to highlight stresses on mountain ecosystems.¹⁸

D. Jacobsen, et al. “Biodiversity under threat in glacier-fed river systems”. Nature Climate Change, 2012, doi: 10.1038/nclimate1435.

References

1. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1297.
2. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1735.
3. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2011, 13, 2084.
4. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 731.
5. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2009, 11, 1905.
6. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2011, 13, 488.
7. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2011, 13, 780.
8. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 16.
9. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1509.
10. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2011, 13, 2681.
11. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1125.
12. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 734.
13. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1301; M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1735.
14. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 322.
15. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2011, 13, 2975.
16. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2010, 12, 805–1009.
17. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 1511.
18. M. Sharpe, J. Environ. Monit., 2012, 14, 736–1513.

---