News

Legislation

EPA budget reflects ‘tough choices’

The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is facing a 13% reduction in its budget as part of the Obama Administration's commitment to ensure that the government lives within its means. The Administration is proposing a budget of $8.973 billion for fiscal year (FY) 2012, versus the FY 2010 budget of $10.3 billion.

EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson said the reduction reflected “the tough choices needed for our nation's short- and long-term fiscal health – and allows EPA to maintain its fundamental mission of protecting human health and the environment”.

Water infrastructure remains one of the big ticket items. Around $2.5 billion – a decrease of $947 million – is earmarked for the Clean Water and Drinking Water State Revolving Funds (SRFs), under which EPA works with states and communities to build and renew clean water and safe drinking water systems.

Some $1.2 billion is allocated for the Superfund programme to support cleanup at the highest priority hazardous waste sites. While EPA will be exploring efficiencies in the programme, it concedes that the $70 million reduction to Superfund will slow the pace of new projects and completion of projects. Another initiative to see cuts is the Great Lakes ecosystem programme; its budget is reduced by $125 million to $350 million.

Net beneficiaries include an additional $16.1 million for chemical risk assessments and chemical information activities; and $67.4 million to support clean up in Chesapeake Bay, a major regional water body and economic engine. An additional $46 million is allocated for regulatory efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) pollution and implement GHG reporting requirements under the Clean Air Act. This includes $25 million for states and $5 million for EPA to address GHGs in Clean Air Act permitting activities.¹

Research and innovation into new and emerging environmental science will receive $584 million. This includes a $24.7 million increase to Science to Achieve Results (STAR) grants to ensure that the Agency has access to the best science. At the same time, EPA's research programme is being restructured to ensure that scientific work is conducted more efficiently and effectively.

EPA: http://www.epa.gov/planandbudget/annualplan/fy2012.html

WEEE review makes slow progress

Proposed revisions to EU rules on waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) are becoming increasingly log-jammed due to rows over the measure's scope and collection targets. Under proposals put forward by Hungary, which currently holds the EU presidency, the law (as currently) would be restricted to specific product categories. This closed scope is in contrast to the open scope set in the recent revision of the RoHS directive.²

Governments remain split on the issue.³ Twelve countries support Hungary's proposal including the UK and Italy. The European Commission also favours a closed scope. As a compromise, Germany proposes waiting several years before opening WEEE's scope, the solution eventually adopted during the RoHS negotiations. The ten categories covered by the existing WEEE directive would be reduced to five: temperature exchange equipment, screens and monitors, lamps, heavy equipment and light equipment.

Collection targets is another contentious area. The presidency proposal maintains a 45% collection target applying four years after the rules' entry into force, followed by a 65% target two years later. This is less ambitious than the immediate 65% target favoured by the Commission and the European Parliament.

The Parliament also wants producer responsibility to be extended to collection. This would require exporters to provide proof that the waste sent outside Europe is reusable, rather than customs authorities having to check. It would also establish EU recovery standards and allow producers to register products for recovery only once, rather than in each member state. At the moment, producers only pay for post-collection transport and treatment. Ministers are against this measure on cost grounds, but MEPs say EU consumers should bear part of the burden for recovery.

Recycling targets in a different context are also an issue in the debate over biowaste. A recent consultation revealed a wide range of opinion. French waste association FNADE said targets may help improve waste management but separate collection targets would be costly to implement. The Commission has suggested setting a 36.5% target for the biological treatment of biowaste,⁴ which FNADE believes is not sufficiently high to boost recycling in France, where between half and two-thirds of biowaste is already recycled or recovered.

In its response, the UK government strongly resists biowaste recycling targets and separate collection, whereas Norway (where the landfilling of biodegradable waste is banned) strongly supports them. European waste industry association, FEAD, says an EU recycling target could be beneficial, although it would be difficult to set given current differences in levels across Europe. It identifies the definition of recycling as an important issue, which it takes to mean the reprocessing of organic matter.

Meanwhile, FEAD's new president has called on the EU to adopt a free market in waste management. Peter Kurth said Europe had to recognise that waste is now a business sector and no longer a service of general interest. It is time to have fair competition between public and private waste operators because the preferential treatment given to the public sector is impeding innovation and investment in more modern waste treatment facilities. In Germany, for example, private waste operators have to pay VAT whereas public ones are exempt. The association wants more EU regional funds to be available to public-private partnerships or private projects so as to build the recycling industry in eastern Europe. “It will be private firms that bring recycling forward,” said Mr Kurth. “Most municipalities are not large enough to establish recycling plants.”

European Parliament: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/; European Commission: biowaste consultation, http://circa.europa.eu/Public/irc/env/biowaste_prop/home; FEAD: http://www.fead.be/

No change for CO standard

After what it describes as “a careful review of the best available science”, EPA is proposing to keep the current US national air quality standards for carbon monoxide (CO), while taking steps to gather additional data through more focused monitoring. The science shows that the current standards will protect people, the Agency says, especially those susceptible to health problems associated with breathing CO from outdoor air.

The current US health standards are 9 parts per million (ppm) measured over 8 h, and 35 ppm measured over 1 h. However, proposed changes in monitoring requirements would require a more focused monitoring network, with CO monitors placed near highly-trafficked roads in urban areas with populations of 1 million or more. The data from these sites would be available for scientific studies that could help inform future reviews of the standard. These requirements could be met by relocating some existing CO monitors to the near-road monitoring stations already required in connection with the revised nitrogen dioxide standards issued in January 2010.⁵ CO monitors at the new locations would be required to be operational by January 2013.

EPA: http://www.epa.gov/airquality/carbonmonoxide/

Governments duck green governance reform

Governments remain divided on how to reform governance of environmental and sustainable development issues. While the subject was the focus of much debate at the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) Governing Council meeting in Nairobi, no decisions were taken.

Green governance reform has been on the agenda for a decade and is seen as increasingly pressing as the number of international environmental agreements has grown. The EU, which has been an outspoken critic of UNEP,⁶ continued to press for radical changes but others such as the US, China, Russia and India favour incremental change. A resolution adopted by the meeting passes the issue to the body preparing for Rio+20, asking it to make a full analysis of options for reform tabled last autumn by a high-level consultative group.⁷

Environment ministers from many countries said they wanted to strengthen UNEP. The organisation must have the same status as other UN agencies such as the World Health Organisation and the Food and Agriculture Organisation, said Germany's Norbert Rottgen. Czech Environment Minister Toma Chalupa said the solution was not to create more institutions. “It is not the lack of proper institutions to govern environmental and sustainable development issues, it is the lack of implementation of agreed goals and recommendations, and lack of political will.” However, the US argued that environmental governance was a national matter.

The Council meeting's main aim was to help shape preparations for next year's Rio+20 conference. A highlight was the publication of a major UNEP report on the green economy, which concludes that green investment can provide a win-win for the economy and the environment. UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon spelt out a similar message in his recent speech to business leaders at Davos.⁸

Other decisions called for stricter international controls on lead, mercury, stronger international chemicals management, a greater focus on waste prevention in national sustainability plans, and for agreement at Rio+20 of a ten-year framework programme on sustainable production and consumption.

UNEP Council: http://www.unep.org/gc/gc26/; Earth Negotiations Bulletin (for full meeting report): http://www.iisd.ca/unepgc/26unepgc/; UNEP governance: http://www.unep.org/environmentalgovernance/; Rio+20: http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/

Environmental quality

Global sulfur emissions on upward trend

A new analysis of sulfur emissions shows that after declining for a decade, worldwide emissions rose again in 2000 due largely to international shipping and a growing Chinese economy. Accurate data on sulfur emissions will help researchers predict future changes in climate and determine present day effects on the atmosphere, health and the environment.

“Sulfur dioxide is an important component of the atmosphere. It changes the radiative balance of the earth by influencing the amount of the sun's energy that warms the globe. We need to understand how much sulfur dioxide is emitted, and when and where it is emitted,” said lead author Steven Smith of the Joint Global Change Research Institute in College Park, Maryland.

Unlike similar studies, the new analysis also provides an estimate of how accurate this emissions tally is. Referred to as ‘uncertainty’, the accuracy estimate arises from difficulties inherent in tracking sulfur. This study estimates that actual emissions for recent decades lie within 10% of the average global emissions reported by Smith and his colleagues. Regional values could potentially be off by a much higher degree – up to 30% in China, for example.

“The regional uncertainty can be moderately high, but the global numbers are much more accurate,” explained Smith. “Understanding the uncertainty will help us determine how sensitive the earth's atmosphere and land are to changes in sulfur content.”

Meanwhile, an EPA report estimates that the benefits of reducing fine particle and ground level ozone pollution under the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments will reach approximately $2 trillion in 2020, while saving 230 000 people from early death in that year alone. The report studied the effects of the Clean Air Act updates on the economy, public health and the environment between 1990 and 2020.

‘Anthropogenic Sulfur Dioxide Emissions: 1850–2005’, S. J. Smith, et al., Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, February 9, 2011, DOI 10.5194/acp-11-1101-2011. EPA: “The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act from 1990 to 2020”, http://www.epa.gov/air/sect812/prospective2.html

Guidance on natural air pollution

The European Commission has issued guidance on the contribution of pollution from natural sources such as volcanic eruptions in cases where EU states exceed air quality limits. EU law allows them to report and discount such pollution. Natural pollution sources covered include volcanic eruptions, wild land fires and the transport of natural particles from dry regions.

The guidance, required by the revised 2008 air quality directive, sets criteria that Member States must use when reporting the data. It does not recommend a specific method for determining how much pollution is due to natural sources. PM₁₀, PM_2.5, SO₂ and carbon monoxide are the main pollutants addressed. Concentrations of other pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), benzene and lead are either not influenced by natural events or they cannot be quantified, the Commission says.

Separate guidance has been issued on how to determine and report PM₁₀ pollution from the winter sanding and salting of roads, which can also be discounted when EU limits are exceeded. Chloride concentrations in PM₁₀ are an indicator of pollution by salt. Half of coarse particles come from sanding, the Commission adds. The other half comes from road abrasion caused by studded tyres, tyre and brake wear, and re-suspension of dust from other sources. “More robust estimates” will emerge once ongoing studies in Sweden and Finland have been completed.

European Commission: Guidance on natural pollution sources www.nerc.ac.uk and winter sanding and salting http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st06/st06775.en11.pdf

Hungary draws a line under red sludge episode

Clean-up work following the leak of toxic red sludge from an aluminium plant in Hungary is nearly done, the government says, and all operations should be completed by the end of June.

A large area was affected by the leak around the town of Ajka last October.⁹ Clean-up operations so far have cost about €37m and the government will have to spend several more million euros to complete the work, which includes the restoration of affected agricultural areas.

The company running the plant, MAL, remains under financial and operational supervision and four employees, including the chief executive, are still in custody. In response to the disaster, the firm will now dry its toxic waste before storing, rather than keeping it in liquid form.

Greenpeace said concentrations of toxins exceeding acceptable EU levels had been detected in a river where MAL releases toxic emissions. The group urged the European Commission to take immediate action against Hungary.

Hungarian Ministry: http://vorosiszap.bm.hu; Greenpeace: http://vorosiszap.bm.hu

Cities accused of cheating on air data

Spain's environmental prosecutor has launched an investigation into suspected manipulation of air pollution data in the country's largest cities including Madrid. Prosecutor Antonio Vercher has notified Madrid's authorities that its practice of “eliminating measuring stations in the areas of highest pollution” significantly altered data without “resolving pollutant levels in the city centre”. The investigation will determine whether such practices have also been used in Barcelona, Seville and Valencia, and could see local authorities or their officials end up in court.

Environmental group Ecologistas en Accion claimed that authorities in 13 Spanish cities, mostly in the Castilla-Leon and Andalusia regions, “have been surreptitiously moving measuring stations since 2001.” Despite the suspected data manipulation, levels of pollutants remain above legal limits in Madrid and elsewhere in Spain. However, the European Commission is taking Spain to court for not meeting limits on airborne particulates.

Elsewhere, a new method for calculating air emissions from road traffic has shown that Norway's NO_x emissions were a lot higher than previously thought. New data released by the country's national statistics office (SSB) show that NO_x emissions in 2009 were 181 000 tonnes, 16% above Norway's ceiling under the 1999 Gothenburg protocol and the 2001 national emission ceilings (NEC) directive. Previous statistics showed 167 000 tonnes had been emitted that year. Preliminary data for 2010 will be published in May.

Ecologistas en Accion: http://www.ecologistasenaccion.org/; SSB: http://www.ssb.no/

Chemical hazards

Authorisations begin to bite

The implications of the EU's REACH regime for chemicals is starting to hit home following the publication of the list of the first six chemicals to be banned under REACH's authorisation list.

Musk xylene and MDA, two substances of very high concern (SVHCs), will be banned from August 2014, following an earlier agreement among ministers.¹⁰ The phthalates DEHP, BBP and DBP will be banned from February 2015, while a ban on flame retardant HBCDD will apply six months later. Companies will have to apply for derogations for specific uses according to various deadlines.

The chemicals were included in the authorisation list much later than originally intended, due to disagreements within the EU executive over substitution requirements.¹¹ ECHA says that more substances should be added to the REACH list now that the substitution disagreement has been resolved. There are currently 46 substances on the SVHC list (which is separate to the REACH authorisation list) and the Agency has recently proposed the addition of a further seven, all of which are carcinogenic or toxic for reproduction. These include strontium chromate, hydrazine, 2-ethoxyethyl acetate and 1,2,3-trichloropropane.

The Commission has recently published guidance on how to apply for substance authorisations. Firms must either show that the required safety measures have been taken to adequately control risks, or that the benefits for the economy and society outweigh the risks. In either case, a timetable for substitution must be submitted.

Elsewhere, lawyers have warned that REACH's requirement for chemical companies to share data puts them at risk of breaching EU competition rules. Firms wishing to register a chemical are required to share data and other information but competition rules do not allow such exchange of information. Although this issue has been addressed in EU guidance on data sharing, the legal risks incurred by companies have not gone away, a Brussels conference was told.

In the United States, meanwhile, EPA has notified five companies that it intends to release the identities of 14 chemicals associated with a number of health and safety studies submitted under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). The action comes as part of the Agency's continued efforts to increase public access to information on risks posed by chemicals in the environment. More chemical names will be identified in the future under plans to review confidentiality claims for substances covered by health and safety studies.

European Commission: http://europa.eu/rapid/ (reference IP/11/196); ECHA: http://guidance.echa.europa.eu/ and consultation: http://echa.europa.eu/consultations/authorisation/svhc/svhc_cons_en.asp; REACH legal conference: www.lexxion.de/pdf/conferences/Programme_EJRR_Conference_2011_Web.pdf; EPA: http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/transparency.html

US to regulate perchlorate

EPA is to move forward with the development of a regulation for perchlorate in drinking water. The decision to undertake a first-ever national standard reverses a decision made by the Bush Administration and follows “a thorough review of the emerging science of perchlorate”.¹²

Perchlorate is both a naturally occurring and man-made chemical, and scientific research indicates that it may impact the normal function of the thyroid, which produces important developmental hormones. Based on this potential concern, EPA will move forward with proposing a formal rule, a process that includes consultation with key stakeholders and the public. The Agency will also now begin to evaluate the feasibility and affordability of treatment technologies to remove perchlorate and examine the costs and benefits of potential standards.

In a separate action, the Agency is also moving towards establishing a drinking water standard to address a group of up to 16 toxic chemicals that may pose risks to human health. This group of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) includes trichloroethylene (TCE) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE), as well as other regulated and some unregulated contaminants that are discharged from industrial operations. As part of the Drinking Water Strategy laid out in 2010, EPA committed to addressing contaminants as a group rather than one at a time so as to improve the cost-effectiveness of drinking water protection.¹³

EPA: http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/unregulated/perchlorate.cfm and http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/dwstrategy/index.cfm

EU to recommend endosulfan ban; debates creosote

The European Union is likely to push for a global ban on the pesticide endosulfan at an April meeting of the Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPs). In a proposal submitted to Member States, the Commission notes that although endosulfan is already banned by the pesticides directive, it will also need to be banned under EU POPs legislation in order for Europe to comply with international law if a global ban is agreed this year.

In 2007, the substance – banned in the EU since 2005 – was nominated for a possible inclusion in annex A of the convention, which lists substances that must be completely eliminated. In October a UN committee concluded that the pesticide should indeed be banned, based on a risk management evaluation launched in 2009.

Endosulfan is still widely used in India, which has opposed restrictions under the Rotterdam convention on trade in dangerous chemicals. The Commission accepts that time-restricted exemptions may be necessary for some countries.

Also, a Commission proposal to allow most biocidal uses of creosote has been referred to ministers after national experts were unable to agree on the issue. Environment ministers will now try to reach an agreement, otherwise it will be up to the Commission to approve the proposal. The measure would allow creosote unless substitutes already exist. Governments agree that creosote should be allowed under the 1998 biocides directive, but differ on bans for certain uses. The Commission has been considering introducing tighter creosote controls since 2008 and recently ministers agreed to extend Europe-wide authorisation to all biocidal products by 2020.¹⁴

European Commission: endosulfan proposal, http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st06/st06812.en11.pdf; creosote proposal, http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st06/st06812.en11.pdf

Industry acts on pesticide training

European farmers, land managers and pesticide operators are to receive training in methods to reduce water pollution from pesticide run-off and to tackle other diffuse sources. Over the next three years the TOPPS-Prowadis project will give on-site demonstrations to farmers in Spain, Italy, France, Belgium, Germany, Denmark and Poland.

The €2m programme, launched by the European Crop Protection Association (ECPA), aims to help meet requirements in the water framework directive and a recently-adopted law on the sustainable use of pesticides. For instance, participants are given a demonstration of a new online database that will share best practices on spray drift management. TOPPS-Prowadis is funded by ECPA and follows on from a previous five-year training project.

ECPA: http://www.ecpa.eu/

Public & occupational health

EU allows 0.1% GM contamination

European imports of animal feed will be allowed to contain traces of unauthorised genetically modified (GM) material below 0.1%. National experts agreed the measure by a qualified majority after the European Commission came forward with a revised proposal designed to address objections. In particular, it included a requirement demanded by the French government that only traces of GM varieties that had previously undergone a full risk assessment should be allowed.

Agriculture lobby group Copa-Cogeca welcomed the decision, but said that the 0.1% threshold should apply to both food and feed because these two product categories are often transported together. Food shipments would still be subject to the EU's existing zero-tolerance policy on GM contamination. Greenpeace said the decision was “a sign that Europe is losing control over its own food production to please American exporters”. It was concerned that EU countries will next be pressured to also end the zero-tolerance policy for food.

In a separate move, the Commission has responded to environment ministers' request for a list of legally-sound reasons for imposing national bans on GM crops. It lists seven main reasons for any potential ban, including public morals, cultural policy, the protection of organic farming, and general environmental policy objectives. These justifications could be used alone or in combination and do not constitute an exhaustive list. Ministers had requested the document in December before continuing negotiations on a draft law that would allow countries to impose their own bans on crops authorised at EU level.¹⁵ They were concerned that such bans could run foul of international trade rules. The Commission stresses that the reasons must be “justified, proportionate and non-discriminatory”. Judges in the European Court of Justice have the final say on the bans' legality if challenged in court.

Ministers also want to see full implementation of a 2008 resolution on GM crops adopted under the French presidency, including a strengthening of Europe's GM risk assessment procedure. The Commission will publish a socio-economic report on this issue shortly and the European Food Safety Authority, EFSA, will publish a consultation in the summer.

Figures released by biotech research body ISAAA show that eight EU states planted GM crops in 2010. Six grew Bt maize, three grew Amflora while the Czech Republic grew both. A further report by Friends of the Earth shows that less than 0.06% of EU fields are GM crops, a 23% decline since 2008.

European Commission: working document on contamination, http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st06/st06812.en11.pdf; Greenpeace: http://www.greenpeace.org; ISAAA: http://www.isaaa.org/; FoE International: http://www.foei.org/; EFSA: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/consultationsclosed/call/gmo101129.htm

Gulf spill follow-up

A new study will look at possible health effects of the Gulf of Mexico's Deepwater Horizon oil spill on cleanup workers and volunteers.

The Gulf Long-term Follow-up Study is the largest health study of its kind ever conducted among cleanup workers and volunteers, and focuses on towns across Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. It is being conducted by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) and is expected to last up to ten years.

“The goal is to help us learn if oil spills and exposure to crude oil and dispersants affect physical and mental health”, explained Dale Sandler, chief of the Epidemiology Branch at NIEHS. “We are enrolling workers and volunteers because they were closest to the disaster and had the highest potential for being exposed to oil and dispersants,” Sandler added.

The study aims to reach out to some of the 100 000 people who took the cleanup worker safety training and to others who were involved in some aspect of the oil spill cleanup. The goal is to enrol 55 000 people. Over time, the study is expected to generate important data that may help inform policy decisions on healthcare and health services in the region. Findings may also influence responses to other oil spills in the future.

NIEHS: http://www.niehs.nih.gov/

Pesticides linked to Parkinson's disease

New research shows an association between use of two pesticides, rotenone and paraquat, and Parkinson's disease. People who used either pesticide developed Parkinson's disease approximately 2.5 times more often than non-users.

In a study funded by NIEHS, scientists studied 110 people with Parkinson's disease and 358 matched controls from the Farming and Movement Evaluation (FAME) Study to investigate the relationship between Parkinson's and exposure to pesticides or other agents that are toxic to nervous tissue. FAME is a case-control study that is part of the larger Agricultural Health Study, tracking 90 000 licensed pesticide applicators and their spouses.

“Rotenone directly inhibits the function of the mitochondria, the structure responsible for making energy in the cell,” explained Dr Freya Kamel, a researcher at NIEHS. “Paraquat increases production of certain oxygen derivatives that may harm cellular structures. People who used these pesticides or others with a similar mechanism of action were more likely to develop Parkinson's disease.”

Her colleague and lead author Caroline Tanner, M.D. added: “These findings help us to understand the biologic changes underlying Parkinson's disease. This may have important implications for the treatment and ultimately the prevention of Parkinson's”.

At present, there are no domestic or residential uses registered in the US for either paraquat or rotenone.

‘Rotenone, paraquat and Parkinson's disease’, C. M. Tanner, F. Kamel, et al., Environ. Health Perspect., doi:10.1289/ehp.1002839

Opinion on cadmium in food

The EU tolerable weekly intake (TWI) for cadmium in food is “still appropriate”, according to the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The scientific advisory body had been asked by the European Commission to review the limit.

The advice follows a decision last year by the World Health Organisation (WHO) to set a provisional tolerable monthly intake of 25 micrograms per kilogram of body weight. This new limit corresponds to a TWI of 5.8 μg kg⁻¹ of body weight. The existing EU limit was set at 2.5 μg kg⁻¹ in 2009. EFSA concludes that the methodology it used to set this limit is the best for maintaining a high level of protection for consumers.

The Commission recently upheld an EU ban on cadmium in rechargeable batteries.¹⁶ Food remains the main form of cadmium exposure for the non-smoking population.

EFSA: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/

Research activities

Cold winters bring more pollution

Research by Swedish scientists points to a strong link between climate and air pollution.

As in much of North-West Europe, the winter weather in Gothenburg is partly down to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), in other words the differences in air pressure over the North Atlantic. In a study, a group of researchers from the University of Gothenburg investigated how the concentrations of nitrogen oxides (NO and NO₂) in the city's air is linked to the weather. Their results shows that the air quality standard has been exceeded more and more frequently during periods of a negative NAO, even though emissions in the city centre have fallen since 2000.

“These extremely cold winters in Gothenburg, with high cold air, bring a clear deterioration in air quality,” said Maria Grundström from the University's Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences. “With typical Gothenburg weather – low air pressure with precipitation and strong winds – the air pollution is dispersed more quickly on account of better air mixing.”

Air mixing is often poor in Gothenburg during the months when the NAO is negative. This means that air pollution emitted at ground level accumulates and that the air quality becomes very poor. During the winter months of 1997 to 2006, concentrations of nitrogen oxides were around 18% higher during months when the NAO was negative than when it was positive.

Air quality standards for nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) were exceeded far more often when the NAO was in a negative phase. The researchers refer, for example, to the fact that the number of exceedances of the hourly limit for NO₂ (90 μg m⁻³) increased. This can be linked to the fact that the NAO has tended increasingly to be in a negative phase during the winter months over the last two years.

‘Urban NO₂ and NO pollution in relation to the North Atlantic Oscillation NAO’, M. Grundström, et al., Atmos. Environ., 2011, 45(4), 883–888. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2010.11.023

Clean streets the key to urban area quality

Recent research by Swiss scientists underlines the important role of clean streets and intact road surfaces in helping to combat air pollution. The researchers conclude that keeping roads as clean as possible and in good repair makes a significant contribution to reducing the problem of fine particulate emissions.

In urban areas, wear debris from vehicle brakes, tyres, and the road surface itself, as well as the re-suspension of “normal” dust, are responsible for more than half the fine particle emissions due to road traffic. The results of a recently completed project, which was financially supported by the Swiss Federal Offices for Roads (FEDRO) and for the Environment (FOEN), show that vehicle brakes contribute about 20% of the fine particle emissions from road traffic because of the stop-and-go nature of traffic flow. Particulate matter due to tyre wear, on the other hand, was hardly significant.

In this situation the state of repair of the road plays a decisive role. If the road surface is intact, then emissions due to direct road wear remain at low levels. Damaged road surfaces, on the other hand, can result in quite high fine particle emission levels. The re-suspension of fine particulate matter due to air turbulence is determined primarily by the cleanliness of the road surface. The characteristics of the road surface also have an influence on fine particle emissions. With the porous road surfaces often used today, the quantity of re-suspended particle matter was significantly less than that encountered on compact road surfaces. Whether this is also true when porous surfaces age and their pores may become blocked remains an open question.

EMPA: http://www.empa.ch/

Breakthrough on mercury transfer

Researchers from Israel and the US have discovered the mechanism whereby dangerous mercury eventually finds its way into the fish we eat from the open seas and oceans.

The researchers, Prof. Menachem Luria from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Dr Daniel Obrist of the University of Nevada, found that ‘passive’ mercury normally found in the atmosphere is converted into an ‘active’, oxidized form in the presence of bromine. The passive mercury is generally non-transferable, whereas the active form is readily absorbed into the environment.

The air over the Dead Sea was chosen for the experiments on mercury oxidation – even though it does not contain any fish – since it has unusually high levels of bromine that is emitted from the surface into the atmosphere, converting the mercury there into the oxidized form.

“Generally, the amount of oxidized mercury…constitutes about one percent of all the mercury in the atmosphere,” said Prof. Luria, “while above the Dead Sea the oxidized mercury often amounts up to about 50 percent.” The researchers say the elevated concentration is due not only to the high level of bromine present on the surface but also to the high rate of evaporation into the atmosphere because of the very high temperatures there.

Although health officials have issued warnings from time to time about the danger of mercury found in fish, the process by which the inactive mercury is converted into the active, oxidized form was previously unknown. The current research has now revealed how this occurs, with the resultant introduction of this dangerous, active form of mercury into the fish food chain and ultimately into humans through the consumption of sea food.

‘Bromine-induced oxidation of mercury in the mid-latitude atmosphere’, Daniel Obrist, Menachem Luria, et al., Nat. Geosci. 4, 22–26 (28 November 2010) doi:10.1038/ngeo1018 Letter

Collaboration in nano research

The US EPA and the UK's Natural Environment Research Council have joined forces to award $12 million to support innovative research on nanotechnology. Grant awards were made to three consortia consisting of researchers from the US and the UK. The scientific information developed from the research will help guide US and UK agencies in decisions about the safety of new materials and products that are made using nanotechnology.

The grants will help American and British researchers determine whether certain nanomaterials can leach out of products such as paints, plastics, and fabrics when they are used or disposed of and whether they could become toxic to people and the environment. Many industries can benefit from the positive applications of nanotechnology, including environmental remediation, pollution prevention, innovative drug delivery and therapy, and efficient renewable energy and energy storage.

EPA: http://www.epa.gov/ncer/uk_nano09/; NERC: http://www.nerc.ac.uk/

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