Nebulizer diagnostics: fundamental parameters, challenges, and techniques on the horizon

Abstract

Nebulizer diagnostic techniques provide fundamental information for the quantitative assessment and prediction of the quality of the aerosol used for plasma spectrometry. Recent advances in aerosol diagnostic techniques are reported, with an emphasis on micronebulizers used in inductively coupled plasma spectrometry. The qualities of an ideal nebulizer in generating an analytically ideal aerosol for plasma spectrometries are described. Optical imaging and non-imaging methods used to obtain droplet size and velocity, number density, volume flux and span information are examined. In addition to established techniques, the capabilities of two novel aerosol diagnostic instruments, the optical patternator and rainbow refractometer, are presented. The optical patternator allows for the rapid elucidation of two-dimensional spray structure, planar mass distribution and spatial droplet size distributions. Rainbow refractometry/thermometry permits the determination of droplet temperature, droplet temperature–size correlations, and droplet temperature–velocity correlations. The capabilities and limitations of each technique are summarized. Prospects for future aerosol diagnostic techniques are discussed.

References

1. A. Montaser, M. G. Minnich, J. A. McLean, H. Liu, J. A. Caruso and C. W. McLeod, ‘Sample Introduction in ICPMS,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, ed. Montaser, A., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 1998, pp. 83–264.
2. A. Montaser, M. G. Minnich, H. Liu, A. G. T. Gustavsson and R. F. Browner, ‘Fundamentals Aspects of Sample Introduction in ICP Spectrometry,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, ed. Montaser, A., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 1998, pp. 335–420.
3. D. T. Heitkemper, K. A. Wolnik, F. L. Fricke and J. A. Caruso, ‘Injection of Gaseous Samples into Plasmas,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasmas in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, ed. Montaser, A., and Golightly, D. W., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 2nd edn., 1992, pp. 781–834.
4. S. Greenfield and A. Montaser, ‘Common RF Generator, Torches, and Sample Introduction System,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasmas in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, ed. Montaser, A., and Golightly, D. W., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 2nd edn., 1992, pp. 187–247.
5. A. G. T. Gustavsson, ‘Liquid Sample Introduction into Plasmas,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasmas in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, ed., Montaser, A., and Golightly, D. W., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 2nd edn., 1992, pp. 679–720.
6. B. L. Sharp, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1988, 3, 613 and 939.
7. R. F. Browner, ‘Fundamental Aspects of Aerosol Generation and Transport,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission Spectroscopy, ed. Boumans, P. W. J. M., Wiley, New York, USA, 1987, Part II, pp. 244–288.
8. C. W. McLeod, M. W. Routh and M. W. Tikkanen, ‘Introduction of Solids into Plasmas,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasmas in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, ed. Montaser, A., and Golightly, D. W., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 2nd edn., 1992, pp. 721–780.
9. S. Greenfield, I. Ll. Jones, C. T. Berry and D. I. Spash, Improvements Relating To Spectroscopic Methods and Apparatus, U. K. Patent 1,109,602, 1968.
10. S. Greenfield, I. Ll. Jones and C. T. Berry, Plasma Light Source for Spectroscopic Investigation, U. S. Patent 3,467,471, 1969.
11. D. R. Wiederin, F. G. Smith and R. S. Houk, Anal. Chem., 1991, 63, 219.
12. J. A. McLean, H. Zhang and A. Montaser, Anal. Chem., 1998, 70, 1012.
13. M. A. Tarr, G. Zhu and R. F. Browner, Anal. Chem., 1993, 65, 1689.
14. H. Liu and A. Montaser, Anal. Chem., 1994, 66, 3233.
15. H. Liu, R. H. Clifford, S. P. Dolan and A. Montaser, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1996, 51, 27.
16. W. C. Hinds, Aerosol Technology, Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles, Wiley, New York, USA, 1982, pp. 1–424.
17. A. H. Lefebvre, ‘Atomization and Sprays,’ in Combustion: An International Series, ed. Chigier, N., HPC, New York, USA, 1989, pp. 1–421.
18. T. Hasegawa, M. Umemoto, H. Haraguchi, C. Hsiech and A. Montaser, ‘Fundamental Properties of Inductively Coupled Plasmas,’ in Inductively Coupled Plasmas in Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, ed. Montaser, A., and Golightly, D. W., Wiley-VCH, New York, USA, 2nd edn., 1992, pp. 373–449.
19. R. H. Clifford, P. Sohal, H. Liu and A. Montaser, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1992, 47, 1107.
20. J. B. French, B. Etkin and R. Jong, Anal. Chem., 1994, 66, 6851.
21. J. W. Olesik and S. E. Hobbs, Anal. Chem., 1994, 66, 3371.
22. M. P. Dziewatkoski, L. B. Daniels and J. W. Olesik, Anal. Chem., 1996, 68, 1101.
23. J. W. Olesik and M. P. Dziewatkoski, J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom., 1996, 7, 362.
24. L. A. Allen, J. J. Leach and R. S. Houk, Anal. Chem., 1997, 69, 2384.
25. J. W. Olesik, Appl. Spectrosc., 1997, 51, 158A.
26. J. W. Olesik, J. A. Kinzer and G. J. McGowan, Appl. Spectrosc., 1997, 51, 607.
27. A. C. Lazar and P. B. Farnsworth, Appl. Spectrosc., 1997, 51, 617.
28. A. Montaser, ICP Inf. Newsl., 1998, 23, 820.
29. A. Montaser, ICP Inf. Newsl., 1998, 24, 1.
30. M. Carré, E. Poussel and J.-M. Mermet, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1992, 7, 791.
31. S. Luan, H.-M. Pang, S. C. K. Shum and R. S. Houk, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1992, 7, 799.
32. D. Pollmann, C. Pilger, R. Hergenröder, F. Leis, P. Tschöpel and J. A. C. Broekaert, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1994, 49, 683.
33. J. W. Olesik, Anal. Chem., 1991, 63, 12A.
34. A. Canals, J. Wagner, R. F. Browner and V. Hernandis, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1988, 43, 1321.
35. S. D. Olsen and A. Strasheim, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1983, 38, 973.
36. J. W. Olesik and J. C. Fister III, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1991, 46, 851.
37. J. C. Fister III and J. W. Olesik, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1991, 46, 869.
38. R. K. Winge, J. S. Crain and R. S. Houk, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1991, 6, 601.
39. A. L. Gray, J. G. Williams, A. T. Ince and M. Liezers, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1994, 9, 1179.
40. J. W. Olesik, L. J. Smith and E. J. Williamsen, Anal. Chem., 1989, 61, 2002.
41. S. E. Hobbs and J. W. Olesik, Anal. Chem., 1992, 64, 274.
42. R. S. Houk, R. K. Winge and X. Chen, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1997, 12, 1139.
43. R. H. Clifford, I. Ishii, A. Montaser and G. A. Meyer, Anal. Chem., 1990, 62, 390.
44. S. C. K. Shum, S. K. Johnson, H.-M. Pang and R. S. Houk, Appl. Spectrosc., 1993, 47, 575.
45. W. D. Bachalo, ‘Droplet Analysis Techniques: Their Selection and Applications,’ in Liquid Particle Size Measurement Techniques, ASTM Special Technical Publication 848, ed. Tishkoff, J. M., Ingebo, R. D., and Kennedy, J. B., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1984, pp. 5–21.
46. Hirleman, E. D., Bachalo, W. D., and Felton, P. G., ed., Liquid Particle Size Measurement Techniques, Special Technical Publication 1083, American Society of Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1990, pp. 1–260.
47. J. W. Novak Jr. and R. F. Browner, Anal. Chem., 1980, 52, 287.
48. J. W. Novak Jr. and R. F. Browner, Anal. Chem., 1980, 52, 792.
49. R. F. Browner, A. W. Boorn and D. D. Smith, Anal. Chem., 1982, 54, 1411.
50. R. F. Browner and D. D. Smith, Anal. Chem., 1983, 55, 373.
51. K. B. Cull and J. W. Carnahan, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1987, 42, 629.
52. J. A. Koropchak and H. Aryamanya-Mugisha, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1989, 4, 291.
53. R. L. Watters, J. R. DeVoe, F. H. Shen, J. A. Small and R. B. Marienko, Anal. Chem., 1989, 61, 1826.
54. R. H. Clifford, H. Tan, H. Liu, A. Montaser, F. Zarrin and P. Keady, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1993, 48, 1221.
55. P. Keady, F. R. Quant and G. J. Sem, TSI Q., 1983, 9.
56. J. A. Koropchak, S. Sadain and B. Szostek, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1996, 51, 1733.
57. H. C. Lewis, D. G. Edwards, M. J. Goglia, R. I. Rice and L. W. Smith, Ind. Eng. Chem., 1948, 40, 67.
58. E. D. Hirleman, On-Line Calibration Technique for Laser Diffraction Droplet Sizing Instruments, ASTM Paper 83-GT-232, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1983.
59. R. N. Berglund and B. Y. M. Liu, Environ. Sci. Technol., 1973, 7, 147.
60. T. Corcoran, R. Hitron, W. Humphrey and N. Chigier, 11th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, ILASS America's '98, Sacramento, CA, USA, May 17–20, 1998.
61. B. J. Thompson, ‘Droplet Characteristics with Conventional and Holographic Imaging Techniques.’ in Liquid Particle Size Measurement Techniques, ASTM Special Technical Publication 848, ed. Tishkoff, J. M., Ingebo, R. D., and Kennedy, J. B., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1984, pp. 111–122.
62. W. D. Bachalo, Int. J. Multiphase Flow, 1994, 20, 261.
63. M. J. Molezzi and J. C. Dutton, AIAA J., 1995, 33, 201.
64. F. Zarrin, D. J. Bornhop and N. J. Dovichi, Anal. Chem., 1987, 59, 854.
65. C.-N. Yeh, H. Kosaka and T. Kamimoto, ‘Measurement of Drop Sizes in Unsteady Dense Sprays,’ in Recent Advances in Spray Combustion: Spray Atomization and Drop Burning Phenomena, vol. I, ed. Kuo, K. K., Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut., 1996.
66. S. V. Sankar, D. M. Robart and W. D. Bachalo, 9th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, San Francisco, CA, USA, May 19–22, 1996.
67. D. G. Talley, V. G. McDonnell, S. Lee and G. S. Samuelsen, 8th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, Troy, MI, USA, May 21–24, 1995.
68. S. V. Sankar, K. E. Maher, D. M. Robart and W. D. Bachalo, 7th International Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, Seoul, Korea, August 18–22, 1997.
69. J. A. McLean, M. G. Minnich, L. A. Iacone and A. Montaser, Anal. Chem., in preparation.
70. W. D. Bachalo, Appl. Opt., 1980, 19, 363.
71. M. W. Routh, Appl. Spectrosc., 1981, 35, 170.
72. M. W. Routh, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1986, 41, 39.
73. A. Canals, V. Hernandis and R. F. Browner, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1990, 45, 591.
74. A. Canals, V. Hernandis and R. F. Browner, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1990, 5, 61.
75. M. A. Tarr, G. Zhu and R. F. Browner, Appl. Spectrosc., 1991, 45, 1424.
76. R. F. Browner, A. Canals and V. Hernandis, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1992, 47, 659.
77. M. A. Tarr, G. Zhu and R. F. Browner, J. Anal. At. Spectrom., 1992, 7, 813.
78. J. W. Olesik, J. A. Kinzer and B. Harkleroad, Anal. Chem., 1994, 66, 2022.
79. A. Canals, V. Hernandis, J. L. Todoli and R. F. Browner, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1995, 50, 305.
80. J. W. Olesik and L. C. Bates, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1995, 50, 285.
81. L. G. Dodge, Appl. Opt., 1984, 23, 2415.
82. Durst, F., Melling, A., and Whitelaw, J. H., ed., Principles and Practice of Laser-Doppler Anemometry, Academic Press, London, UK, 2nd edn., 1981, pp. 1–437.
83. W. D. Bachalo, Complete Particle Field Characterization With Optical Diagnostics, Aerometrics Inc., Technical Paper no. 107, 1989.
84. W. D. Bachalo and M. J. Houser, Phase/Doppler Spray Analyzer for Simultaneous Measurements of Drop Size and Velocity Distributions, Opt. Eng., 1984, 23, 583.
85. C. Presser, A. K. Gupta, C. T. Avedisian and H. G. Semerjian, J. Propul. Power, 1992, 8, 553.
86. C. Presser, A. K. Gupta and H. G. Semerjian, Combust. Flame, 1993, 92, 25.
87. L. Ebdon, M. E. Foulkes and S. Hill, Microchem. J., 1989, 40, 30.
88. R. H. Clifford, A. Montaser, S. A. Sinex and S. G. Capar, Anal. Chem., 1989, 61, 2777.
89. D. R. Wiederin and R. S. Houk, Appl. Spectrosc., 1991, 45, 1408.
90. W. R. Zinky, Air Pollution Control Assoc. J., 1962, 12, 578.
91. L. G. Dodge, J. Propul. Power, 1988, 4, 490.
92. J. L. Dressler and G. O. Kraemer, ‘A Multiple Drop-Size Drop Generator for Calibration of A Phase-Doppler Particle Analyzer,’ in Liquid Particle Size Measurement Techniques, ASTM Special Technical Publication 1083, ed. Hirleman, E. D., Bachalo, W. D., and Felton, P. G., American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1990.
93. J. Stupar and J. B. Dawson, Appl. Opt., 1968, 7, 1351.
94. S. Nukiyama and Y. Tanasawa, Trans. Soc. Mech. Eng. (Japan), Reports 4, 5, and 6, 1938–1940, transl. Hope, E., Defense Research Board, Department of National Defense, Ottawa, Canada, 1950.
95. N. D. Bitron, Ind. Eng. Chem., 1955, 47, 23.
96. A. Gustavsson, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1983, 38, 995.
97. J. Aitchison and J. A. C. Brown, The Lognormal Distribution, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1957.
98. Instrumentation for Monitoring Air Quality, ASTM Special Technical Publication 555, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1974, pp. 1–192.
99. A. Gustavsson, Anal. Chem., 1983, 55, 94.
100. R. A. Mugele and H. D. Evans, Ind. Eng. Chem., 1951, 43, 1317.
101. C. O'Grady, I. L. Marr and M. S. Cresser, Analyst, 1984, 109, 1085.
102. A. Gustavsson, Analyst, 1985, 110, 885.
103. P. A. Strakey, D. G. Talley and W. D. Bachalo, 11th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, ILASS America's '98, Sacramento, CA, USA, May 17–20, 1998.
104. P. A. Strakey, D. G. Talley, S. V. Sankar and W. D. Bachalo, 11th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, ILASS America's '98, Sacramento, CA, USA, May 17–20, 1998.
105. M. Cai, A. Montaser and J. Mostaghimi, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1993, 48, 789.
106. M. Cai, A. Montaser and J. Mostaghimi, Appl. Spectrosc., 1995, 49, 1390.
107. M. Cai, D. A. Haydar, A. Montaser and J. Mostaghimi, Spectrochim. Acta, Part B, 1997, 52, 369.
108. J. Horner and G. M. Hieftje, 24th Annual Conference of the Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies, Providence, RI, USA, October 26–30, 1997.
109. J. Y. Zhu and D. Dunn-Rankin, Appl. Opt., 1991, 30, 2672.
110. F. Durst and A. Naqwi, 2nd International Congress on Optical Particle Sizing, Tempe, AZ, USA, March 5–8, 1990.
111. H. H. Benzon, P. Buchhave and T. Nonn, 7th International Symposium on the Application of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics, Lisbon, Portugal, July 11–14, 1994.
112. F. Onofri, G. Grehan, G. Gouesbet, T.-H. Xu, G. Brenn and C. Tropea, 7th International Symposium on the Application of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics, Lisbon, Portugal, July 11–14, 1994.
113. A. M. Murray and L. A. Melton, Appl. Opt., 1985, 24, 2783.
114. M. R. Welles and L. A. Melton, J. Heat Transfer, 1990, 112, 1008.
115. M. Winter, 23rd International Symposium on Combustion, Orleans, France, July 22–27, 1990.
116. P. Massoli, F. Beretta, A. D'Alessio and M. Lazzaro, Appl. Opt., 1993, 32, 3295.
117. S. V. Sankar, K. M. Ibrahim, D. H. Buermann, M. J. Fidrich and W. D. Bachalo, 3rd International Congress on Optical Particle Sizing, Yokohama, Japan, August 23–26, 1993.
118. S. V. Sankar, D. H. Buermann, K. M. Ibrahim and W. D. Bachalo, Proceedings of the 25th International Symposium On Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 1994, pp. 413–421.
119. S. V. Sankar, D. H. Buermann and W. D. Bachalo, 3rd International Microgravity Combustion Conference, Cleveland, OH, USA, April 11–13, 1995.
120. S. V. Sankar, D. H. Buermann, W. D. Bachalo and D. M. Robart, 33rd Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, Reno, NV, USA, January 9–12, 1995.
121. S. V. Sankar, D. M. Robart and W. D. Bachalo, ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX, USA, November 16–21, 1997.
122. K. Heukelbach, J. Hom and N. Chigier, 11th Annual Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems, ILASS America's '98, Sacramento, CA, USA, May 17–20, 1998.
123. H. M. Nussenzveig, Sci. Am., 1977, 276, 116.
124. M. Schneider and E. D. Hirleman, Appl. Opt., 1994, 33, 2379.
125. D. J. Holve and S. A. Self, Appl. Opt., 1979, 18, 1632 and 1646.
126. D. J. Holve, J. Energy, 1980, 4, 176.
127. D. J. Holve and K. Annen, Opt. Eng., 1984, 23, 591.
128. D. J. Holve and G. W. Davis, Appl. Opt., 1985, 24, 998.
129. D. J. Holve, Combust. Flame, 1982, 48, 105.