Rechargeable lithium batteries

Abstract

The market for lithium batteries is undergoing a rapid expansion as new applications demand higher densities of energy and power storage. Simple theoretical estimates show that lithium and lithium ion cells can reach specific energies of 880 and 500 W h kg^–1 respectively. With an electrolyte conductivity above 3 × 10^–4 S cm^–1 and thickness below 0.01 cm, a power density of 300 W dm^–3 can be obtained without excessive energy losses. Diffusion in porous or polymer composite electrodes is enhanced by an interpenetrating electrolyte provided the electrode particles are small. Batteries using transition metal oxide positive electrodes and carbon negative electrodes are expected to give practical specific energies up to 180 W. h kg^–1 including packaging and other essential additional materials in the near future.

References

1. S. Yoda, Extended Abstract, 8th International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Nagoya, Japan, June 1996..
2. B. C. H. Steele, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. A, 1981, 302, 361.
3. Lithium Batteries, ed. Pistoia, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1994..
4. Handbook of batteries, ed. D. Linden, 2nd edn., McGraw Hill..
5. Proceedings of the 1st to 7th International Meetings on Lithium Batteries, Elsevier Sequoia. The latest volume also appeared in J. Power Sources, 1995, vol. 54..
6. J. Crank, The Mathematics of Diffusion, Clarendon, Oxford, 2nd edn., 1975, p. 48..
7. J. R. Owen, Solid State Ionics, 1981, 5, 343.
8. C. F. Holmes, ch. 10 of ref. 3..
9. G. A. Hendriksen, ch. 39 of ref. 4..
10. S. D. Jones and J. Ackridge, J. Power Sources, 1995, 54, 63.
11. V. Gutmann, Coordination Chemistry in Non-Aqueous Solvents, Springer-Verlag, Vienna, 1968..
12. L. A. Dominey, ch. 4 of ref. 3..
13. M. Armand, Proceedings of the Second International Meeting on Solid Electrolytes, St Andrews, Scotland, 1978..
14. J. R. Craven, R. H. Mobbs, C. Booth and J. R. M. Giles, Makromol. Chem., Rapid Commun., 1986, 7, 81.
15. P. M. Blonski, D. F. Shriver, P. Austin and H. R. Allcock, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1984, 106, 6854.
16. I. E. Kelly, J. R. Owen and B. C. H. Steele, J. Electroanal. Chem., 1984, 168, 467.
17. J. R. McCallum, M. J. Smith and C. A. Vincent, Solid State Ionics, 1981, 11, 307.
18. W. R. McKinnon, in Solid State Electrochemistry, ed. P. G. Bruce, Cambridge University Press, 1995, ch. 7, p. 187..
19. T. Ohsuku, ch. 6 of ref. 3..
20. N. Kumagai, N. Kumagai and K. Tanno, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1992, 135, 3553.
21. K. Mizushima, P. C. Jones, P. C. Wiseman and J. B. Goodenough, Mater. Res. Bull., 1980, 15, 783.
22. M. M. Thackeray, W. I. F. David, P. G. Bruce and J. B. Goodenough, Mater. Res. Bull, 1983, 18, 461.
23. S. Panero, E. Spila and B. Scrosati, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1996, 143, L29.
24. A. B. Gavrilov, I. P. Kovalev and T. A. Skotheim, Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 1996, 97–17, 204.
25. I. E. Eweka, J. F. Rohan, J. R. Owen and A. G. Ritchie, Power Sources, ed. A. Attewell and T. Keily, International Power Sources Symposium Committee, 1995, vol. 15, no. 241..
26. E. Peled, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1979, 126, 2047.
27. D. Aurbach, I. Weissman, A. Zaban and O. Chusid, Electrochim. Acta., 1994, 39, 51.
28. C. Frignant, A. Tranchant and R. Messina, Electrochim. Acta., 1995, 40, 513.
29. T. Hirai, J. Yoshimatsu and J. Yamaki, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1988, 135, 2422.
30. T. Hirai, J. Yoshimatsu and J. Yamaki, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1994, 141, 2300.
31. T. Osaka, T. Momma, H. Ito and B. Scrosati, Electrochem. Soc. Proc., 1996, 97–17, 1.
32. A. H. Whitehead, K. Edstrom, N. Rao and J. R. Owen, J. Power Sources, 1996, 63, 41.
33. J. R. Dahn, A. K. Sleigh, H. Shi, B. M. Way, W. J. Weydanz, J. N. Reimers, Q. Zhong and U. von Sacken, ch. 1 of ref. 3..
34. G. Sandi, R. E. Winans and K. A. Carrado, J. Electrochem. Soc., 1996, 143, L95.
35. S. Hosain, ch. 36 of ref. 4..