Bacteria-driven bio-electroactive sterilization

Abstract

Developing responsive antibacterial materials is crucial in addressing antibiotic overuse. While many materials respond to indirect external stimuli like pH, light, and enzymes, bacterial self-metabolism remains an underutilized activation mechanism for precision sterilization. Here, we present a self-sustaining bioreactor consisting of bacteria-reduced graphene oxide–copper biohybrids (BrGO–Cu), wherein living bacteria activate graphene oxide–copper ions (GO–Cu) for self-termination through metabolic redirection. Bacterial extracellular electron transfer (BEET) cascade reduced graphene oxide promotes Cu²⁺ to Cu⁺ conversion and ultimately kills bacteria through ˙OH generation. Meanwhile, the BrGO–Cu bioreactor effectively prevents biofilm formation with negligible cytotoxicity. Notably, the bacteria-responsive bioreactor exhibits lasting bactericidal activity upon recapture of live bacteria for up to 129 passages without bacterial resistance. Our work pioneers a BEET-redirecting strategy that enables pathogen-specific, long-lasting antimicrobial protection through precisely controlled feedback loops.