Determination of atenolol based on the reversion of the fluorescence resonance energy transfer between AgInS2 quantum dots and Au nanoparticles

Abstract

The present work focused on the development of a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based sensing platform for the monitoring of atenolol in pharmaceutical formulations. The implemented approach involved the assembly of D-penicillamine-capped AgInS₂/ZnS quantum dots (QDs), as energy donors, and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as acceptors and the establishment of electrostatic interaction between both capping ligands at the nanoparticle surface, which induced the inhibition of the ternary QD photoluminescence (PL). The presence of a ZnS shell around the ternary QD core and the use of cysteamine (CA) as the AuNP capping ligand, instead of the typical citrate, allowed a more efficient FRET process to occur. The ability of Cd-free ternary QDs to be used as a sensing element in FRET-based assays was demonstrated, emphasizing the advantages relative to the common Cd-based QDs, when seeking the implementation of more environmentally friendly and less toxic analytical methodologies. The influence of several β-blocker drugs on the FRET donor–acceptor assemblies was thoroughly assessed. Atenolol and nadolol caused the aggregation of CA–AuNPs via hydrogen bonding interactions which reduced the spectral overlap between the donor and acceptor, impairing the FRET process and consequently the emission of the QDs was restored. Under the optimized conditions, the obtained results exhibited a linear relationship between the QD PL recovery signal and atenolol concentration of up to 11.22 mg L⁻¹ with a detection limit of 1.05 mg L⁻¹. This FRET sensing platform was successfully applied in the determination of atenolol in pharmaceutical formulations with recovery values ranging from 97.4 to 104.3%.