Impact of non-nucleotidic bulges on recognition of mixed-sequence dsDNA by pyrene-functionalized Invader probes

Abstract

Invader probes, i.e., DNA duplexes modified with +1 interstrand zippers of intercalator-functionalized nucleotides like 2′-O-(pyren-1-yl)methyl-RNA monomers, are energetically activated for sequence-unrestricted recognition of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) as they are engineered to violate the neighbor exclusion principle, while displaying high affinity towards complementary DNA sequences. The impact on Invader-mediated dsDNA-recognition upon additional modification with different non-nucleotidic bulges is studied herein, based on the hypothesis that bulge-containing Invader probes will display additionally disrupted base-stacking, more extensive denaturation, and improved dsDNA-recognition efficiency. Indeed, Invader probes featuring a single central large bulge – e.g., a nonyl (C₉) monomer – display improved recognition of model DNA hairpin targets vis-à-vis conventional Invader probes (C₅₀ values ∼1.5 μM vs. ∼3.9 μM). In contrast, probes with two opposing central bulges display less favorable binding characteristics. Remarkably, C₉-modified Invader probes display perfect discrimination between fully complementary dsDNA and dsDNA differing in only one of eighteen base-pairs, underscoring the high binding specificity of double-stranded probes. Cy3-labeled bulge-containing Invader probes are demonstrated to signal the presence of gender-specific DNA sequences in fluorescent in situ hybridization assays (FISH) performed under non-denaturing conditions, highlighting one potential application of dsDNA-targeting Invader probes.