A novel method for the in situ calibration of flow effects on a phosphate passive sampler

Abstract

Monitoring of nutrients including phosphate in the aquatic environment remains a challenge. In the last decade passive sampling techniques have been developed that facilitates the time integrated monitoring of phosphate (P) through the use of an iron hydroxide (ferrihydrite) to sequester dissolved phosphate from solution. These methods rely on established techniques to negate the effects of flow (and associated turbulence) and control the rate at which chemicals accumulate within passive samplers. In this study we present a phosphate sampler within which a suspension of ferrihydrite is contained behind a commercially available membrane. Accumulation of dissolved phosphates into the P-sampler is governed by the rate at which ions are diffusing through the membrane and the water boundary layer (WBL). As the WBL changes subject to flow we have adopted an in situ calibration technique based on the dissolution of gypsum to predict the change in the rate of uptake dependent on flow. Here we demonstrate that the loss of gypsum from the passive flow monitor (PFM) can be used to predict the sampling rate (the volume of water extracted per day) for phosphate as a function of water velocity. The outcome of this study presents a new in-field tool for more accurate prediction of the effect of flow/turbulence on the uptake kinetics into passive samplers that is controlled by the diffusion of the chemical of interest through the stagnant water boundary layer.