Design and application of rhodamine derivatives in redox biology: a roadmap of the last decade towards artificial intelligence

Abstract

Reactive sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen species (reactive SON species) are an important topic of research in redox biology. The roles of reactive SON species in monitoring physiological conditions have emerged as a research topic in recent years owing to their “double-edged sword” behaviour, i.e., constructive role in cellular signaling to destructive role in mutagenesis. In this case, due to their good physicochemical properties (photostability, high molar extinction coefficient, quantum yield, etc.), rhodamine-based sensory probes have been extensively applied for the detection of reactive SON species. Therefore, in the present review, the importance and detrimental effects of reactive SON species on human health are briefly discussed. Additionally, a detailed background of rhodamine-based sensory receptors is presented to obtain a clear perspective for designing rhodamine-based chromo-fluorogenic probes for the recognition of reactive species. Along with this, an in-depth discussion on sensing principles, detection thresholds, linear dynamic range of detection, and biological applications is presented in each section on the detection of reactive species using rhodamine-based probes explored in the last decade (2013-present) for the conceptual understanding of probe design. Subsequently, we have summarized the advancements in the present research together with insights into the current research status from a structural viewpoint. Finally, the difficulties and challenges associated with the present research strategies are also discussed to improve the current research strategies, highlighting the urgent need to develop new probes in the direction of “sensing and monitoring of a reactive species via rhodamine-based sensory probe point of care testing” (SMART) strategy for advanced healthcare applications.