From lithium-last technology to lithium-first technology: technical mapping and collaborative strategies for sustainable lithium-ion battery recycling

Abstract

The lithium-ion battery (LIB) industry faces a critical challenge in achieving sustainable resource circularity amid surging global demand. While LIB recycling technologies have advanced, a disconnect persists between academia and industry: novel methods remain confined to labs, while industry relies on traditional hydrometallurgy with high pollution risks. This review redefines LIB recycling technologies as “lithium-last technology” (LLT) and “lithium-first technology” (LFT) paradigms, establishing a technical mapping to bridge this gap. LLT, driven by transition metal (TM) recovery, employs hydrogen-/nitrogen-based extractants or bio-extractants but suffers from inefficiency and environmental costs. LFT prioritizes selective lithium extraction via product- or process-oriented strategies, enhancing sustainability and shortening recycling routes. However, industrial adoption of LFT is hindered by operational complexity, impurity management, and scalability barriers. Life-cycle assessments reveal that emerging oxidative extraction and direct regeneration show promise for low-carbon development, yet traditional methods dominate due to rigid infrastructure and market immaturity. Future challenges include handling low-value LIBs (e.g., LFP), mitigating overcapacity, and integrating AI for pre-evaluation. This work provides actionable insights to align academic innovation with industrial needs, fostering eco-friendly and economically viable LIB recycling.