Advanced battery systems—the end of the lead–acid battery?

Abstract

For more than 100 years the lead–acid battery (LAB) has been a well-established battery system, mostly used in the traditional battery market. However, during this time, advanced battery systems, such as Ni–MH, high-temperature systems (Na–S, Na–NiCl₂) or Li-systems were under development. These new types are directed especially towards new applications such as electric vehicles, battery energy storage or the 4C market (computer, camcorder, cordless phones, cordless tools). This paper discusses how the LAB may co-exist on the traditional and the new battery market in competition to the advanced battery systems. This discussion is based on such important battery parameters as safety, energy, power, costs and recycling, as well as on the improvement potentials of the LAB. This paper is focussed in detail on improvements in energy, power, user properties and corrosion. The influence of the average electron path in the active mass, the active mass thickness and the active mass structure on the battery energy are discussed. The influence of active mass resistance and the cell connector resistance on the battery power are discussed in detail. Industrial solutions to overcome power constraints are demonstrated by the TMF (thin metal foil) battery and bipolar batteries. The advantages and disadvantages of both gel type and adsorbed glass mat (AGM) type of valve regulated lead–acid (VRLA) batteries are explained. Problems related to the Pb/Pb-alloy corrosion in terms of open circuit corrosion and in-situ corrosion measurements are discussed. Taking into account its improvement potential, the LAB will continue to have a strong market position in the future, especially in the fields of stationary and automotive applications.