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DOI: 10.1039/C6RP00238B (Paper) Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2017, 18, 630-640

Evaluating interest in acids–bases: development of an acid–base interest scale (ABIS) and assessment of pre-service science teachers' interest

Ö. Çiçek and N. Ilhan *
Kilis 7 Aralık University, M. R. Education Faculty, Department of Science Education, Kilis, Turkey. E-mail: naililhan@gmail.com

Received 4th December 2016 , Accepted 8th May 2017

First published on 8th May 2017

Abstract

Students are more likely to be successful in topics they are interested in than others. This study aims to develop an Acid–Base Interest Scale (ABIS) and subsequently evaluate the interest of pre-service science teachers in acids–bases according to gender, years at the university, type of high school the pre-service science teachers attended, and their relative success in the module General Chemistry II. Upon careful consideration of validity and reliability for the development of the ABIS, data were collected from 453 pre-service science teachers. The five-point Likert-type ABIS consisted of 26 items and entailed three factors (“Individual Interest”, “Interest in Theoretical Information”, and “Interest related to Daily Life”). Cronbach's alpha coefficient representing the reliability of the ABIS was 0.894. Once the reliability of the ABIS was ascertained, it was administered to 982 pre-service science teachers in eight public universities in Turkey. Of the potential determinants evaluated, gender and years at the university were found to be statistically significant, whereas the type of high school the pre-service science teachers attended and the grade achieved in module General Chemistry II failed to be statistically significant.

1. Introduction

Interest is often described as an individual's relationship with the objects or situations they encounter in their daily lives; more precisely, it is conceptualised as a ‘person–object’ relationship (Krapp, 2002a, 2005). ‘Interest’ allows an individual to willingly engage in certain activities and display deliberate participation and satisfaction rather than indolence towards that specific activity (Kuzgun, 2014). In other words, interest provides a platform for the individuals to manifest themselves through their daily activities and personal choices (Holland, 1997). The decisions of individuals in various situations they encounter are significantly influenced by interest. Eagerness for completing a task varies depending on the intensity of interest they have towards that task. In the context of education, students are reported to achieve relatively higher success in subjects or topics in which they are interested than the ones they find uninteresting (Laçin Şimşek and Nuhoğlu, 2009).

Individual knowledge on and interest in a topic are interrelated. Indeed, an individual with a particular interest in a topic enjoys participating in related learning activities, easily adapts to the necessary learning environment, fosters positive emotions for such activities, and focuses his or her utmost attention to related activities. In educational context, students' interest in teaching activities is pivotal.

The concept of interest can be categorised into two: “situational interest” and “individual interest” (Krapp, 2002a). Situational interest is characterised as short-term interest which is stimulated by the environmental factors the individual experiences in his or her learning process (Schiefele, 1999). It is shaped by the short-term emotional and cognitive changes the individual undergoes (Hidi and Baird, 1986). On the other hand, individual interest is a long-term interest shaped by personal traits (Krapp, 2002a, 2002b). Newly flourishing individual interest enables the formation of a predisposition towards the topic or subject on which the interest is focused through repetition (Hidi and Renninger, 2006). A well-developed individual interest enables the individuals to be knowledgeable in topics in which they have an interest (Renninger, 2000). In the educational context, this can be translated into relatively high levels of student curiosity, dedication and attention towards topics which spark interest (Renninger, 2000; Renninger and Hidi, 2002). Therefore, interest plays a key role in the learning process. Interest, unlike external motivation, is a natural and enjoyable way to do something, because it is an inherent source of motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Krapp, 2002b).

Importance of the study

The standard science curriculum has been debated because it is ambiguous, uninteresting, insignificant and not related to personal curiosity and interest (Glenn, 2000; Lyons, 2006). Student' interest is one of the factors to be considered in the teaching and curriculum development process (Aikenhead, 2005). Several researchers in science education have investigated students' questions as an indicator of their interest in science (Baram-Tsabari et al., 2006, 2010; Cakmakci et al., 2012; Elmas et al., 2013). For instance, Demirdögen and Cakmakci (2014) investigated Turkish students' interest in chemistry by analyzing their self-generated chemistry-related questions which had been submitted to a popular science magazine. The result of their study showed that most of the students asked questions about “states of matter and solutions” and “nuclear chemistry and chemistry of the elements.” Studies assessing the affective domain of students towards science education largely focus on students' attitudes and motivation towards science or chemistry (Osborne et al., 2003; Glynn et al., 2007). Therefore, it is not surprising that existing scales were specifically developed to assess the attitudes and motivation of students (Glynn et al., 2007). In fact, various studies highlight the pivotal role of interest in the learning process. Osborne et al. (2003) explained that an individual's attitude in science can be influenced by their interest. Students are open to learning new facts on topics in which they have interest. Indeed, they are more likely to have invested curiosity, ask questions, and search for answers related to such topics compared to those they find less interesting (Renninger and Hidi, 2002). Thus, interest is an indispensable factor for learning, and it acts as a precursor for acquiring new knowledge on a topic of interest. Consequently, interest in a subject increases the productivity in its learning stage. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the determinants of learning necessitates further studies focusing on the role of interest in learning subjects. One way to improve student interest is to provide materials that cater to students' interest (Garner et al., 1992; Wade, 2001; Swarat, 2008). However, in order to do so, we need to know what students are interested in. Nevertheless, no existing studies were directly focused on interest in specific subjects. Existing studies which focus on interest in science education in Turkey can be grouped into (i) inquiries on interest in science topics of students studying in primary schools (Laçin Şimşek and Nuhoğlu, 2009), (ii) analysis of several factors influencing the interest of elementary school students in science topics (Bozdogan and Yalçın, 2006), and (iii) appraisal of the strength of interest of pre-service science teachers in the environment and environmental issues (Yapıcı, 2009; Gürsoy Köroglu, 2011).

The present study aims to assess the interest of pre-service science teachers in acids–bases, a topic which forms one of the backbones of general chemical teachings. Specifically, the topic of acids–bases acts as a prerequisite for grasping further chemical topics as it covers widely used concepts in chemistry. Deficiencies in learning acid–base concepts also cause inability to link the acid–base concepts with daily life phenomena. (Yıldız et al., 2006). Therefore, it is important to explore the interest of students in acids–bases. Additionally, broader knowledge on this area can serve as an example for future studies focusing on different topics, subjects or domains. Importantly, assessing the pre-service teachers' interest in this topic has significant implications for science educators. Nevertheless, an appropriate scale for such an assessment is not currently present. Thus, developing such a tool with an acceptable level of validity and reliability is needed.

Aims of the study

The aims of this study were two-fold: “Aim I” – to develop an Acid–Base Interest Scale (ABIS) and “Aim II” – to assess the interest of pre-service science teachers in acids–bases in terms of various variables (gender, years at the university, type of high school they attended, grade achieved in module General Chemistry II).

2. Methods

This study was completed in two stages. An Acid–Base Interest Scale (ABIS) was created in the first stage, “Aim I”, and the interest of science teacher trainees in acids–bases was assessed in the second stage, “Aim II”. A survey method was used in this study. Survey studies, which are often used for gathering and presenting data from large groups, help obtain data necessary for identifying the different characteristics of groups (McMillan and Schumacher, 2010).

Participants

Different samples were used to meet the two aims of the study. To develop the ABIS, a sample size as large as five to ten times the number of items in the scale was essential (Bryman and Cramer, 2001). For the first part “Aim I”, 453 pre-service science teachers (353 females, 100 males) from three different public universities in Turkey were surveyed. To find out the pre-service science teachers' interests, “Aim II”, the ABIS was administered to 982 pre-service science teachers (792 females, 190 males) at eight public universities. This study was carried out in the 2014–2015 academic year. Pre-service science teachers were asked to participate in the study. Participation in the survey was based on volunteerism. They were told that they would not have any positive/negative effect due to their participation. The samples for “Aim I” and “Aim II” are detailed in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1 The sample for the development of the ABIS “Aim 1”
Frequency Percent (%)
Gender
Female 353 77.9
Male 100 22.1
Total 453 100
Years at the university
1 125 27.6
2 133 29.4
3 101 22.3
4 94 20.8
Total 453 100

Table 2 The sample for the application of ABIS in “Aim II”
Frequency Percent (%)
a The grades for module General Chemistry II are not available for year one pre-service science teachers.
Gender
Female 792 80.7
Male 190 19.3
Total 982 100
Years at the university
1 307 31.3
2 262 26.7
3 217 22.1
4 196 20.0
Total 982 100
Type of High School
General High School 604 61.5
Vocational High School 80 8.1
Anatolian High School 298 30.3
Total 982 100
Module General Chemistry II (4 point grading system)a
0.00–0.99 74 7.5
1.00–1.99 100 10.2
2.00–2.99 343 34.9
3.00–4.00 157 16.0
Total 674 68.6

Data collection for survey. The ABIS was administered to pre-service science teachers in eight different public universities during the spring term of the academic year of 2014–2015. The ABIS was conducted by the educational instructors working in the universities based on voluntary participation. The participants were informed the aims of the study as well as the utilisation of the ABIS. Personal information was not collected from the participants as personal assessment was not going to be conducted on the individual participants. The participants were not given any time constraint for filling the ABIS.
Data analysis. Microsoft Excel 2010, IBM SPSS Statistics 20, and LISREL 8.7 statistical software programmes were used to analyse the data. Initially reliability and validity analyses were conducted by computing Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The data collected through the ABIS was analysed. An independent sample t-test was used to assess whether the pre-service science teachers' interest on acids–bases differed by gender. The independent sample t-test compares two means, from different groups (Field, 2009). On the other hand, one-way ANOVA was used to assess whether the interest in acids–bases differed by years at the university, type of high school attended and general chemistry II score. The one-way ANOVA compares several means, from different groups (Field, 2009). In cases where one-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant results, Tukey's test and Dunnett's C test were conducted to establish the means which were statistically significantly different from each other.
Steps involved in the development of the acid–base interest scale (ABIS) “Aim I”. The steps involved in the development of the ABIS were ascertained under the guidance of existing research in the field (Tezbaşaran, 2008; Ilhan et al., 2013; Tavşancıl, 2014). These steps were as follows:

(I) Ensuring content and face validity: including the theoretical framework; expert opinion; and administration of a pilot study

(II) Ensuring construct validity: including correlational item analysis; item analysis using the high–low-27-percent group method; factor analysis; correlation analysis between factors, general correlation of items after factor analysis, naming of factors

(III) Calculating the internal consistency coefficient: including the calculation of Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient (a measure of internal consistency)

3. Results

Results for “Aim I”

(I) Content and face validity.
Theoretical framework. The theoretical framework behind the ABIS was developed in two stages. First, a literature review was conducted to uncover the dimensions and measurement techniques used in the measurement of interest (Krapp, 2002a; Bozdogan and Yalçın, 2006; Hidi and Renninger, 2006; Laçin Şimşek and Nuhoğlu, 2009; Yapıcı, 2009; Gürsoy Köroglu, 2011; Demirdögen and Cakmakci, 2014). This review suggested that Likert-type scales are suitable for measuring interest, and the items found in such questionnaires are more likely to involve questions regarding questioning and curiosity sentences. Second, 60 pre-service science teachers were consulted and random interviews were conducted with three of them for the development of both the theoretical framework and the interest scale. The questions in the interviews included questions such as “(i) Which acids–bases attract your interest in your daily life? Why?; (ii) In light of your daily life, can you name the acids–bases that are interesting for you?; (iii) Do you pay attention to the pH levels of matter you use in daily life? Why?”. After analysis of the results which revealed the thoughts of the pre-service science teachers, in addition to the review of the existing literature, the ABIS was structured to have three domains: “Individual Interest”, “Interest in Theoretical Information”, and “Interest related to Daily Life”.
Development of item pool. The chemistry textbook for the 10th Grade, prepared by the Turkish Ministry of Education (TME), was used as the primary source for the development of the item pool for use in the AIBS (MEB, 2013).

Additionally, the literature and the views of pre-service science teachers resulted in the development of the first draft of the ABIS constituting 55 items on a five-point Likert scale.


Expert opinion. The first draft of the ABIS was reviewed by an expert committee that comprised eight academics who commented on the appropriateness of the items for accurately assessing the interest levels of pre-service science teachers on the acids–bases topics. Specifically, the expert committee comprised one full professor and two assistant professors of chemistry, and two associate professors and three assistant professors of chemistry education. The experts' opinions noted in “Expert Opinion Forms” were collected through one-to-one interviews (n = 3) and emails (n = 5). “Expert Opinion Forms” allowed the experts to review the items in relation to their appropriateness for the study (appropriate/needs revision/remove) and potential benefit to the study.

Next, the draft items were reviewed in light of expert opinions, and were reduced to a total of 48 items. Additionally, the wordings of the items were reviewed to ensure that the questions were simple, clear, brief, and fit for purpose. Hence, the content and face validity of the ABIS were optimised (Tavşancıl, 2014).


Pilot study. To further establish the content and face validity, ABIS was applied to 40 pre-service science teachers. The results of this pilot study further informed the next review of the questions for language, comprehensibility and time needed to complete the questions.
(II) Construct validity.
Item analysis. Item analysis was used to determine the item discrimination power. Discrimination power is computed from the high and low scoring groups of the test with the top 27% of the person sample in the high group and the bottom 27% in the low group. The 48 items in the ABIS were analysed for construct validity using correlational item analysis and item analysis based on differences between averages of upper–lower group item scores. The item analysis was also repeated after the reduction of items through factor analysis. Prior to item analysis, descriptive statistics from the scores gained through the ABIS were calculated. As depicted in Table 3, the results of the coefficient of skewness (−0.379) of the distribution of the scores from the 48-item ABIS do not majorly deviate from the normal distribution (Büyüköztürk, 2012).
Table 3 Descriptive statistics of data used for the development of the ABIS
  Values
Mean 173.1369
Standard deviation 25.62526
Skewness −0.379
Kurtosis 0.172
Minimum 63
Maximum 231

The performance of items and the total test score were correlated during the correlation analysis of the 48-item ABIS. Item-total test correlation values ranged between 0.351 and 0.643 (Table 4). Item-total test correlation values higher than 0.25 indicate satisfactory discrimination and therefore they are valid to include in the developed scale (Ozdamar, 2013).

Table 4 Item-total test correlation values and the results of t-tests between the averages of high–low groups
Item Item-total test correlations (r) t-value (the averages of high–low) Item number Item-total test correlations (r) t-value (the averages of high–low)
1 0.461 3.784 25 0.643 6.046
2 0.502 3.682 26 0.576 5.220
3 0.351 1.741 27 0.631 7.141
4 0.484 5.340 28 0.543 5.309
5 0.392 3.915 29 0.498 4.315
6 0.517 7.108 30 0.544 5.777
7 0.545 3.919 31 0.532 5.473
8 0.539 3.996 32 0.522 3.350
9 0.510 3.727 33 0.456 3.194
10 0.442 2.226 34 0.507 4.680
11 0.605 4.673 35 0.595 5.931
12 0.477 3.080 36 0.496 3.385
13 0.498 3.579 37 0.492 3.554
14 0.545 4.458 38 0.436 3.791
15 0.611 4.457 39 0.511 4.135
16 0.565 5.671 40 0.520 4.878
17 0.575 6.008 41 0.414 3.299
18 0.561 5.231 42 0.445 3.298
19 0.490 5.330 43 0.486 6.888
20 0.561 3.601 44 0.574 3.116
21 0.599 4.425 45 0.639 4.818
22 0.566 5.542 46 0.534 4.770
23 0.500 5.067 47 0.506 5.439
24 0.570 6.905 48 0.642 6.774

Item analysis based on differences between averages of upper–lower group item scores was also investigated. The sum of the scores of interest for the data collection tool was used to determine the distinctive powers of the items in the scale. Interest scores for this are ranked from high to low. The upper and lower groups were formed from 123 persons who constitute 27% of the whole sample. The scores derived from the 48-item test for the ABIS were first ranked from high to low, and the highest 27% (123 pre-service science teachers) and the lowest 27% (123 pre-service science teachers) were grouped. For each item, the t-test coefficient for the average of both high group and low group scores were calculated (Table 4). In this analysis, t (df = 244) values were found to change between 1.741 (p < 0.05) and 7.141 (p < 0.05). If a statistically significant result is not attained through t-tests, the corresponding items must be removed from the scale. However, the results showed no need for removal of items from the ABIS.


Exploratory factor analysis. The appropriateness of the data for exploratory factor analysis was established through Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) for measuring sampling adequacy and Bartlett test of Sphericity. The dataset revealed a KMO value of 0.933 and a Bartlet test value of 8286.862. These values are in line with the requirements of factor analysis (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). The number of factors used in the scale was determined through Eigen value statistics, scree plots and percentage of total variance (Table 5). Determination of factors and reduction of items were accomplished through rotation using the Varimax rotation.
Table 5 Variance and eigenvalues explained by the ABIS
Factor Eigenvalues Variance (%) Cumulative (%)
1 7.253 15.149 15.149
2 2.018 14.013 29.162
3 1.527 12.368 41.530

Factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 (Büyüköztürk, 2012) and those explaining most of the variance indicated by their location in the scree plot (Fig. 1) were considered during the determination of the number of factors. Ultimately, the eigenvalues and scree plot revealed that the ABIS would be formed in three factors.


image file: c6rp00238b-f1.tif
Fig. 1 Scree plot for factor analysis of the ABIS.

During the presentation of the factorial structure of the ABIS, a Rotated Component Matrix (RCM) was extracted and the factor loadings of each item were inspected. Items with factor loadings in the range of 0.40 and 1.00 were considered to be important, whereas items with factor loadings greater than 1 were removed from the ABIS (Bryman and Cramer, 2001; Büyüköztürk, 2012). In accordance with these criteria, the RCM was repeated several times, and items 6, 7, 11, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45 and 48 were removed from the ABIS. The final form of the ABIS consisted of 26 items and had a KMO value of 0.903 and a Bartlett's test value of 3434.70. The determined three factors explained 41.53% of the total variance, with the first, second and third factors individually explaining 15.149%, 14.013% and 12.368% of the total variance, respectively (Table 5). The 26-Item ABIS consists of items with factor loadings ranging from 0.439 to 0.681.


Correlational relationship between factors. The correlation values of the items forming the three factors (domains) of the ABIS (Table 6) revealed medium, positive and statistically significant correlations (r12 = 0.506, r13 = 0.559; r23 = 0.508, p < 0.05). Thus, it could be concluded that these domains represent discriminant measures.
Table 6 Correlation between the factors of the ABIS
    Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3
a p < 0.05.
Factor 1 Pearson correlation 1 0.506a 0.559a
P 0.000 0.000
Factor 2 Pearson correlation — 1 0.508a
P 0.000
Factor 3 Pearson correlation — — 1
P


Naming of factors. The concept of interest is categorized as “situational interest” and “individual interest” in the literature (Krapp, 2002a; Hidi and Renninger, 2006). We explained naming of the factors in the ABIS according to the theoretical framework of interest and the result of factor analysis.

Factor analysis conducted for the ABIS revealed three different factors; these factors were named “Individual Interest”, “Interest in Theoretical Information”, and “Interest related to Daily Life”.

Individual interest means that people prefer a specific topic for a relatively long time and individual interest is an inherent source of motivation (Ryan and Deci, 2000; Krapp, 2002b). For this reason, the “individual interest” factor includes expressions about “how” and “why”. Individual interest deals with the causes and how they are formed. In the “interest related to daily life” factor, it includes the expressions of situations and events that individuals encounter in their daily lives.

(III) Internal consistency coefficient. The internal consistency of ABIS (total 26 items) was evaluated using item-total test score correlations. The item-total test score correlations ranged between 0.39 and 0.62 (Table 7). Cronbach's alpha for all of the items in the ABIS was calculated as 0.894. On the other hand, Cronbach's alpha values for the three factors were 0.764, 0.832 and 0.811, respectively. These values indicate that the ABIS has acceptable reliability (DeVon et al., 2007).
Table 7 Item factor loadings, item-total test correlations and Cronbach's alpha values
  Item no. Items in ABIS F1 F2 F3 Item-total test correlation Cronbach's alpha
Individual interest 13 The reason why cola is acidic 0.44 0.50 0.764
16 The reason why lemon corrodes marble surfaces 0.61 0.56
19 The properties of materials used for preventing itching caused by bug bites 0.63 0.40
22 The impact of mineral water and acidic drinks on the digestive system 0.55 0.52
1 How the drain openers solve the dirt 0.57 0.56
4 How acid rains form 0.57 0.47
7 The reason why the colour of matter changes when red cabbage, aubergine, tea and strawberries were added to different matter. 0.65 0.50
10 The properties of containers in which materials such as nitric acid, spirit of salt, oil of vitriol are kept 0.49 0.50
Interest in theoretical information 2 Solving questions on acids–bases 0.68 0.39 0.832
23 The properties of metals which release hydrogen (H2) gas when interacted with acids 0.57 0.54
20 Learning why the solutions of NH3 and CaO are basic 0.61 0.58
5 Conducting research on acids–bases 0.66 0.54
8 Learning the matters which form H+ and OH− ions in water 0.65 0.56
11 Finding out which acids are weak and which are strong and the corresponding reasons behind the strength of different acids 0.60 0.57
14 Methods for assessing the level of acidity and basicity of matter 0.65 0.62
17 The chemical properties of materials such as nitric acid, spirit of salt, oil of vitriol acid 0.56 0.56
25 Learning why the aqueous solutions of CO2 and SO2 are acidic 0.51 0.54
Interest related to daily life 3 Potential environmental, health-related and plumbing-related harm of overusing certain cleaning supplies 0.61 0.57 0.811
6 The properties of materials in daily life which can be used to clean rust and lime formed in kitchen appliances 0.62 0.56
9 The reason why acidic food and drinks can be harmful for the human body (teeth, stomach, etc.) 0.68 0.48
12 The warning signs on the packaging of containers filled with acids/bases 0.63 0.54
15 Techniques that allow establishing acidity or basicity of matters without touch or taste 0.61 0.51
18 pH values noted on soap, shampoo, wet wipes, and cosmetics 0.57 0.41
21 How drain openers may harm installation pipes 0.52 0.60
24 The dangerous gases formed when bleach and spirit of salt are mixed 0.56 0.55
26 The functions of acidic and basic secretions made in the human body (mouth, stomach) 0.45 0.53
Cronbach's alpha for 26 items 0.894

Results for “Aim II”

Descriptive statistics in addition to the statistics related to the reliability and validity of the data collected through the ABIS were calculated. The possible scores from the ABIS range between 26 and 130. As illustrated in Table 8, the highest and lowest scores attained for interest levels in the ABIS were 126 and 57, respectively. The mean score was 94.313 (SD = 13.456), with a skewness value of −0.261 and a Kurtosis value of −0.287.
Table 8 Descriptive statistics for the level of interest
  Values
Number of pre-service teacher 982
Mean 94.3133
Standard deviation 13.456
Skewness −0.261
Kurtosis −0.287
Range 69
Minimum 57
Maximum 126

Reliability for the ABIS

The reliability coefficient was calculated using the data gathered from 982 pre-service science teachers. The overall reliability coefficient (Cronbach's alpha) for all dimensions of the ABIS was calculated as 0.893, whereas the corresponding Cronbach's alpha values for the dimensions of the ABIS were respectively 0.768, 0.820 and 0.815 (Table 9). These results show that the measurements are reliable.
Table 9 Mean of items, standard deviation and reliability coefficient values for the ABIS
Item number Mean Standard deviation Cronbach's alpha
1 3.801 0.991 0.768
4 3.951 0.926
7 3.813 0.958
10 3.565 1.065
13 3.446 1.000
16 3.867 0.890
19 3.782 1.041
22 3.965 0.888
2 3.200 1.097 0.820
5 3.310 1.013
8 3.568 1.003
11 3.501 1.008
14 3.362 0.986
17 3.348 1.018
20 3.227 1.035
23 3.184 1.031
25 3.211 1.026
3 3.754 0.960 0.815
6 3.785 0.975
9 4.053 0.888
12 3.711 0.996
15 3.854 0.982
18 3.836 0.984
21 3.537 1.023
24 3.817 1.011
26 3.861 0.943

Confirmatory factor analysis

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to verify the accuracy of data gathered in the second stage of this study (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). CFA was conducted in LISREL 8.7, and the calculated index values of the fit statistics formed in the model by confirmatory factor analysis (Table 10).
Table 10 Confirmatory factor analysis of the ABIS
X 2 X 2 RMSEA RMR SRMR GFI AGFI NFI CFI
1073.42 3.626 0.052 0.044 0.044 0.92 0.91 0.95 0.96

The degree of freedom to Chi squared ratio given in Table 9 is 3.626. The degree of freedom to Chi squared ratios equal to or smaller than 5 indicate that the index of goodness-of-fit for the model is acceptable (Klem, 2000). Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Root Mean Square Residual (RMSR) and Standardised Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), which are all measures of goodness-of-fit, were calculated as 0.052, 0.044 and 0.044, respectively. Values smaller than 0.08 are accepted for these measures (Hu and Bentler, 1999). Additionally, the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), the Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI), the Normed Fit Index (NFI) and the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) were determined as 0.92, 0.91, 0.95, and 0.96, respectively. The values of these indices further confirm the structures identified through the factor analysis of the ABIS (Hu and Bentler, 1999; Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). RMSEA values typically range from 0 to 1. A smaller RMSEA value indicates a better model fit of RMSEA with values less than 0.08 being indicative of an acceptable model (Munro, 2005; Yılmaz and Çelik, 2009; Schumacker and Lomax, 2010). In our study, the RMSEA value was 0.052 indicating an acceptable fit (Munro, 2005; Yılmaz and Çelik, 2009; Schumacker and Lomax, 2010).

The path diagram for the CFA using the statistically meaningful t-values and the error variances of the indicators is provided in Fig. 2.


image file: c6rp00238b-f2.tif
Fig. 2 Path diagram.

Descriptive findings for the survey

The mean scores for the items of the ABIS ranged between 3.184 and 4.053 (Table 9). For items of the ABIS, the highest mean scores were achieved for item 9 (the reason why acidic food and drinks can be harmful for the human body (teeth, stomach, etc.)) which was in the dimension of “Interest related to Daily Life”, and item 23 (the properties of the metals which release hydrogen (H2) gas when interacting with acids) which was in the dimension of “Interest in Theoretical Information”. Overall, the lowest mean scores were in the dimension of “Interest in Theoretical Information” (Table 9).

Interest in acids–bases by gender

Preservice science teacher' interest in acids–bases according to their gender was investigated by using an independent sample t-test. A statistically significant difference of the interest scores was found between the male and female pre-service science teachers (t(980) = 3.54, p < 0.05). This difference stems from the lower mean interest scores of males (M = 91.2211, Sd = 12.96) than females (M = 95.0543, Sd = 14.48) (Table 11). Therefore, it is possible to say that female pre-service science teachers tend to have statistically significant higher levels of interest in acids–bases than male pre-service science teachers. A statistically significant difference of the interest scores in terms of the “individual interest” factor was found between the male and female pre-service science teachers (t(980) = 2.56, p < 0.05). A statistically significant difference of the interest scores in terms of the “Interest in Theoretical Information” factor was not found between the male and female pre-service science teachers (t(980) = 0.76, p > 0.05). A statistically significant difference of the interest scores in terms of the “Interest related to Daily Life” factor was found between the male and female pre-service science teachers (t(980) = 5.60, p < 0.05).
Table 11 Independent sample t-test by the gender
Variable Gender N M Sd t Df p
Df: degree of freedom; Sd: standard deviation.
Interest level Female 792 95.054 14.48 3.54 980 0.00
Male 190 91.221 12.96

Results on the undergraduate level, type of high school and the academic score achieved in module General Chemistry II

Second grade students had the highest mean levels of interest in acids–bases (Table 12). The lowest mean interest levels were demonstrated by third grade students. One-way ANOVA revealed a statistically significant result (Table 13) for the relationship between years at the university of interest in acids–bases (F(3,978) = 3.250, p = 0.02). When Dunnett's C multiple comparison test was conducted to compare the groups between which the statistically significant association existed, it was seen that the fourth grade students (M = 92.40, SD = 13.53) had statistically significantly lower interest in acids–bases than second grade students (M = 95.94, SD = 13.17).
Table 12 Descriptive statistics for years at the university, type of high school, general chemistry II scores
a 1st grade: first year at the university, 2nd grade: second year at the university, 3rd grade: third year at the university, 4th grade: fourth year at the university. b Anatolian high schools are more prestigious than general high schools and offered intensive English language education in Turkey. c Data for general chemistry II grades were derived from pre-service science teachers second, third and fourth years, as the corresponding scores for 1st grade students were not available yet.
Years at the university N M SD
1st Gradea 307 93.55 14.30
2nd Gradea 262 95.94 13.17
3rd Gradea 217 95.17 12.23
4th Gradea 196 92.40 13.53
Total 982 94.31 13.45
Type of High Schoolb
Anatolian High School 298 93.03 14.54
Vocational High School 80 95.02 12.66
General High School 604 94.85 12.97
Total 982 94.31 13.46
Module general chemistry II (4 point grading system)c
0–0.99 74 94.46 12.23
1.00–1.99 100 92.37 11.86
2.00–2.99 343 94.63 13.17
3.00–4.00 157 96.29 13.78
Total 674 94.66 13.06

Table 13 ANOVA results
  Source Sum of square Df Mean square F p
YU: years at the university; THS: type of high school; MGC: module general chemistry II.
YU Between Groups 1753.16 3 584.38 3.25 0.02
Within Groups 175857.87 978 179.81
Total 177611.02 981
THS Between Groups 705.75 2 352.87 1.95 0.14
Within Groups 176905.27 979 180.70
Total 177611.02 981
MGC Between Groups 946.29 3 315.43 1.86 0.14
Within Groups 113801.92 670 169.85
Total 114748.22 673

Pre-service science teachers who graduated from vocational high schools had the highest mean interest levels in acids–bases, whereas Anatolian high-school graduates had the lowest mean interest levels. However, the pre-service science teachers' acid–base level of interest did not show a statistically significant difference in terms of the type of high school, F(2,979) = 1.953, p > 0.05.

Pre-service science teachers take the module General Chemistry II when they are first grade students in Turkey. Acid–base is covered by the module General Chemistry II. Pre-service science teachers who achieved a mean score of 3.00–4.00 for the module General Chemistry II demonstrated the highest level of interest in acids–bases. On the other hand, pre-service science teachers who received a mean score between 1.00–1.99 had the lowest levels of interest in the same topic. Nevertheless, a statistically significant difference was not present for the level of interest in acids–bases and the academic score achieved in the module General Chemistry II, F(3,670) = 1.857, p > 0.05.

4. Discussion

The first stage of the present study involved the development of an Acid–Base Interest Scale (ABIS) for assessing the level of interest of pre-service science teachers in acids–bases. The reliability and validity of the ABIS were calculated by using data collected from 453 pre-service science teachers. Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions (“Individual Interest”, “Interest in Theoretical Information”, and “Interest related to Daily Life”) for the ABIS. These dimensions were validated by using confirmatory factor analysis on the data obtained from the administration of the ABIS to 982 pre-service science teachers in the second stage of the study. The ABIS is a five-point Likert type scale consisting of 26 items, and the analyses reveal that it can be adopted in further studies with similar aims.

ABIS mean item scores conducted on 982 pre-service science teachers in the second stage of this study ranged between 3.184 and 4.053. The lowest mean scores were attained for item 23 (the properties of metals which release hydrogen (H2) gas when interacting with acids) and the highest scores were received for item 9 (the reason why acidic food and drinks can be harmful for the human body (teeth, stomach, etc.)). Compared to the dimension representing “Interest in Theoretical Information”, the other two dimensions “Individual Interest” and “Interest related to Daily Life” had higher mean item scores.

The results of the present study showed that females tend to have a significantly higher interest scores in acids–bases than male pre-service science teachers. To our knowledge, no other studies focusing on interest in acids–bases exist in the literature. A study by Ilhan et al. (2011) which focused on the interest of high school students in organic chemistry in daily life highlighted greater levels of interest for females than males. Furthermore, these results are in parallel with the study by Erten (2008) which focused on the interest of elementary and middle school students in human biology and the study by Trumper (2006) which investigated the interest of elementary students in biology. However, several studies in the field found different associations between gender and interest in academic topics. For instance, the study by Demirdögen and Cakmakci (2014) on student interest in chemistry topics identifies males as the group with the highest interest in these topics. Moreover, the study by Martin et al. (2008) assessing the interest of students in science by their gender found no statistically significant associations. Therefore, it could be concluded that the findings on the relationship between gender and interest in academic topics are inconsistent.

Another finding of this study was that pre-service science teachers' years at the university were significantly associated with their level of interest in acids–bases. Second grade students tended to have a statistically higher interest in acids–bases when compared with fourth grade students. As the years go by, pre-service science teachers get more modules on chemistry in the university. Hence, the fourth grade students are expected to encounter an increasing number of acid–base concepts and examples. Fourth grade students are supposed to know the answers of “how” and “why” expressions in items of the ABIS. However, some researchers emphasized that interest and learning reinforce each other (Alexander et al., 1995; Schraw et al., 2001).

One another finding of this study indicated no statistically significant differences in the interest of pre-service science teachers in acids–bases according to the type of high school. This may be due to the nature of interests of high school students. For instance, these students favour activities over traditional lecturing. This result could be due to the lack of such activities during the courses, especially of the acid–base topic.

Finally, another finding of this study revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-service science teachers' level of interest in acids–bases according to the academic score achieved in the module General Chemistry II. However, results from diverse studies have explained the importance of the relationship between interest in a subject matter and academic achievement (Schiefele et al., 1992; Harackiewicz and Hulleman, 2010). Also, some researchers emphasized that the interest arises from the increase in information, while the increase in knowledge leads to interest (Alexander et al., 1995; Schraw et al., 2001). Thus, it could be inferred that the pre-service science teachers with higher interest tend to have higher academic grades. Therefore, the academic success of individuals remains one of the important factors which influence academic interest.

5. Recommendations

Taking the results of this study into account, several recommendations can be made which can guide researchers in assessing the interest of pre-service science teachers in the topic of acids–bases, thereby improving the pre-service science teachers' interest. Recommendations can also be made for administrators and educators who can help increase students' interest in related topics. Some of these recommendations are listed below.

• The ABIS, developed in this study, can also be used to evaluate the interest of undergraduate students who are taking chemistry courses in different science disciplines such as chemical engineering, food engineering, pharmacy, etc.

• Determination of interest by using the ABIS may contribute to the regulation of the learning environment affecting the academic achievement of students.

• For students who have a determined level of interest about the acid base (interest related to daily life, interest in theoretical information, individual interest), individualized learning programs can be planned.

• In this study, we have investigated the interest of pre-service science teachers on the topic of acids–bases in terms of some variables. Also, other factors (e.g., culture, curriculum, teacher influence) that affect interest can be investigated.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank the Scientific Research Projects Unit of Kilis 7 Aralık University for financial support (Project Number 2014/02/LTP/02). This article is derived from a Master's thesis submitted to the Kilis 7 Aralık University by the first author (Özge Çiçek) under the supervision of the second author (Nail Ilhan).

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