In vivo K-shell X-ray fluorescence bone lead measurements in young adults

Abstract

The ¹⁰⁹Cd K-shell X-ray fluorescence (XRF) technique was used to measure in vivo tibia lead concentrations of 34 young adults living in the state of Vermont (USA) and the province of New Brunswick (Canada). The subjects ranged in age from 18 to 35 years, and had no known history of elevated lead exposure. Measurement parameters were varied, using the same XRF system for both populations. Tibia lead concentrations were low for both groups, with mean values of 0.7 μg lead g⁻¹ bone mineral (Vermont) and 0.5 μg g⁻¹ (New Brunswick). No individual measurement exceeded 7 μg g⁻¹. Mean uncertainty values obtained for the Vermont and New Brunswick subjects were 4.1 μg g⁻¹ and 2.6 μg g⁻¹, respectively. Improved measurement uncertainty in the New Brunswick group was attributed to the use of a reduced source-to-skin distance (∼5 mm) and a longer measurement time (3600 seconds) using a weaker radioisotope source (≤0.42 GBq). Measurement uncertainty tended to increase with body mass index. For a given body mass index, female subjects returned a measurement uncertainty ∼1 μg g⁻¹ greater than males.